Anti-virus therapy for respiratory diseases

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides the use of IFN-β, an agent that increases the expression of IFN-β, or a polynucleotide which is capable of expressing IFN-β or said agent for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of rhinovirus-induced exacerbation of a respiratory disease selected from asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, wherein said treatment is by airway delivery of said medicament, e.g. by use of an aerosol nebuliser. Also provided is IFN-λ for the same purpose.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of priority of U.S. ProvisionalApplication No. 60/783,297, filed Mar. 17, 2006, as well as the benefitof priority of GB Patent Application No. 518425.4, filed Sep. 9, 2005;this application is also a continuation-in-part of PCT/GB2005/050031,filed on Mar. 7, 2005, published in English as WO 2005/087253, whichclaims the benefit of priority to GB Patent Application No. 0405634.7,filed Mar. 12, 2004. The contents of this document are incorporatedherein by reference.

REFERENCE TO SEQUENCE LISTING SUBMITTED VIA EFS-WEB

The entire content of the following electronic submission of thesequence listing via the USPTO EFS-WEB server, as authorized and setforth in MPEP §1730 II.B.2(a)(C), is incorporated herein by reference inits entirety for all purposes. The sequence listing is identified on theelectronically filed text file as follows:

File Name Date of Creation Size (bytes) 255352002020Seqlist.txt Feb. 25,2009 18,440 bytes

FIELD OF INVENTION

The invention relates to anti-virus therapy for respiratory diseases.More specifically, the invention relates inter alia to the treatment ofrhinovirus-induced exacerbations of asthma or chronic obstructiverespiratory disease (COPD) by airway delivery of interferon-β (IFN-β) oran agent that increases IFN-β expression. Interferon lambda (IFN-λ) isalso proposed for the same purpose. Both asthma and COPD are examples ofinflammatory airways disease in which the common cold virus (rhinovirus)is recognised to cause exacerbations associated with severe clinicalproblems.

BACKGROUND ART

Viral respiratory tract infections lead to the exacerbation of a numberof respiratory diseases. In fact, viral respiratory tract infections areresponsible for 85% of asthma exacerbations (Johnston et al., BMJ, 1995;310: 1225-8; Nicholson et al., BMJ, 1993; 307: 982-6), including themost severe requiring hospitalisation (Johnston et al., Am. J. Respir.Crit. Care Med. 1996; 154: 654-660). It is of concern that viralinfections can trigger severe asthma exacerbations even when there isgood asthma control by compliant patients taking optimal doses ofinhaled corticosteroids (Reddel et al., Lancet, 1999; 353: 364-369). Themost common pathogen associated with asthma exacerbations is rhinovirus.Infection with rhinovirus leads to the release of inflammatory mediators(Teran et al., Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1997; 155: 1362-1366) andincreased bronchial responsiveness (Grunberg et al., Am. J. Respir.Crit. Care Med. 1997; 156: 609-616).

Subjects with asthma do not appear to be more susceptible in acquiringviral respiratory tract infections but they do have more severe lowerrespiratory tract symptoms (Come et al., Lancet, 2002; 359: 831-834).Although rhinovirus is known to infect bronchial epithelial cells (Gernet al., Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1997; 155: 1159-1161) and hasbeen isolated from the lower airway (Papadopoulos et al., J. Infect.Dis., 2000; 1821: 1875-1884; Gern et al., Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.1997; 155: 1159-1161), the reasons why the asthmatic lower respiratorytract is more prone to the effects of infection with rhinovirus areunclear. It is therefore necessary to determine why asthmatic bronchialepithelial cells have an abnormal response(s) to virus infection thatcauses increased viral replication and shedding leading to prolonged andaugmented pro-inflammatory responses and associated exacerbation ofasthma symptoms. It is also necessary to provide treatments forvirally-induced exacerbations of asthma.

Surprisingly, it has been found that asthmatic bronchial cells areabnormal in their response to viral infection leading to increasedvirion production compared to healthy normal controls. This is despitethe fact that both asthmatic and healthy cells mount an earlyinflammatory response to infection. It has also been shown thatasthmatic cells are more resistant to early apoptosis followinginfection and have a deficient type I interferon response. This earlyapoptotic response is a key protective mechanism since inhibition ofapoptosis in healthy control cells leads to enhanced viral yield.Therefore the increased virion production by asthmatic bronchialepithelial cells is associated with the ability of the cells to bypassapoptosis. Furthermore, it has been found that induction of apoptosis inasthmatic bronchial epithelial cells using IFN-β causes a significantreduction in infectious virion production. The invention thereforerelates to the treatment of virally-induced exacerbations of asthmausing an apoptosis-inducing agent, preferably IFN-β or an analogthereof.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,030,609 has previously proposed a method for treatingrespiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection in the airways by aerosoldelivery of IFN-β. This proposal was made solely on the basis ofexperiments with cultured lung epithelial cells. There is no mention inU.S. Pat. No. 6,030,609 of asthma and more particularlyrhinovirus-induced exacerbation of asthma, which as indicated above is aserious clinical problem. Indeed, it is not possible to extrapolate fromthe experiments reported in U.S. Pat. No. 6,030,609 that IFN-β would beeffective in treating rhinovirus-induced exacerbation of asthma, as RSVis known to produce proteins that interfere with Type I interferonproduction (Bossert & Conzelmann, Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)nonstructural (NS) proteins as host range determinants: a chimericbovine RSV with NS genes from human RSV is attenuated ininterferon-competent bovine cells. J Virol. (2002) 76, 4287-93; andSpann et al., Suppression of the induction of alpha, beta, and lambdainterferons by the NS1 and NS2 proteins of human respiratory syncytialvirus in human epithelial cells and macrophages [corrected]. J Virol.(2004) April; 78(8):4363-9; Erratum in: J Virol. (2005) 78 (12):6705),whereas no similar activity is known to be produced by rhinovirus.Furthermore, although the first clinical trial in the general populationusing IFN-β-ser against experimental rhinovirus infection showedpromising beneficial effects (Higgins P G, Al-Nakib W, Willman J,Tyrrell D A. Interferon-beta ser as prophylaxis against experimentalrhinovirus infection in volunteers. J. Interferon Res. (1986) 6:153-9),in a subsequent trial for prophylaxis of natural colds, IFN-β-ser wasfound to be ineffective (Sperber S J, Levine P A, Sorrentino J V, RikerD K, Hayden F G, Ineffectiveness of recombinant interferon-beta serinenasal drops for prophylaxis of natural colds. J. Infect Dis. (1989) 160,700-5), possibly because normal cells have an innate capacity to produceIFN-β in response to rhinovirus infection. As indicated above, theinventors in this instance have found that a key feature thatdistinguishes asthmatic epithelial cells is a deficient apoptoticresponse due to impaired production of IFN-β that enables viralreplication to proceed unchecked, thereby contributing to prolongedsymptoms and disease exacerbation. While treatment of such deficiency byuse of IFN-β was first proposed by the inventors in relation torhinovirus-induced exacerbation of asthma, it is now proposed to beequally applicable to rhinovirus-induced exacerbation of COPD, whichencompasses a range of conditions including chronic bronchitis andemphysema.

As indicated above, there are also now proposed new medical uses ofinterferon lambda (IFN-λ). More particularly, for example, use of IFN-λ,is proposed to treat viral-induced exacerbation of respiratorydisorders, especially for example, viral-induced exacerbation of asthmaby viruses such as rhinovirus (RV), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)and influenza virus. This proposal has stemmed from furtherinvestigation of interferon production in bronchial epithelial cells andbronchoalveolar lavage cells of asthmatics in response to viralinfection.

One family of interferons, which includes IFN-β, are the Type Iinterferons. The Type I interferons are a family of closely relatedglycoproteins comprised of thirteen IFN-α subtypes as well as IFN-β,IFN-κ, IFN-τ and IFN-ω. The different human IFN-α subtypes have beenidentified by analysis of human cDNA libraries and by protein analysisof the IFNs produced by stimulated lymphoblastoid cells; the reasons fortheir heterogeneity remain unclear. Early studies indicated that allsubtypes bind the same receptor from which it was inferred that theymust elicit identical responses. Subsequently, comparative studies ofboth purified and recombinant subtypes revealed a spectrum ofanti-viral, anti-proliferative and immunomodulatory responses.

There is one type II interferon, IFN-gamma, which binds a differentreceptor and has largely distinct function from the type I IFNs.

Type-I interferons are a very important component of the innate immuneresponse to respiratory virus infection. The method of protectioninvolves initial release of IFN-β, which then stimulates further releaseof IFN-β and of the IFN-αs in a cascade mediated via the type-1interferon receptor.

The interferon-λs are three closely related proteins which have morerecently-been discovered (Kotenko S. V. et al., Nature Immunology 2003;Vol 4, 69-77; Sheppard P et al., Nature Immunology 2003; Vol 4, 63-88).Interferon λ-1 is also known as IL-29, while Interferon λ-2 and 3 areknown as IL-28a/b. These interferons bind a third receptor distinct fromthose of type I or type II interferons. Thus they are now termed thetype III interferons. These interferons have been shown to haveanti-viral activity in in vitro cell studies (see, for example, WO2004/037995 of Zymogenetics Inc). However, their utility in protectingagainst any natural respiratory virus infection in humans has notpreviously been established.

In this connection, it is also worthy of note that IFN-β-ser has provedineffective in trial for prophylaxis of natural colds despite itspreviously reported anti-viral activity (Sperber et al., J. Infect. Dis(1989) 160, 700-705) and that this may be explained by the capacity ofnormal cells to produce IFN-β in response to rhinovirus infection.Equally, it is not possible to extrapolate from in vitro studies withIFN-λ showing anti-viral activity that the same interferon type willhave any therapeutic value against in vivo natural respiratory virusinfection.

As indicated above, interestingly, investigation of interferonproduction by human asthmatic bronchial epithelial cells in response torhinovirus infection firstly showed that such cells have a deficienttype I interferon response in keeping with observed resistance to earlyapoptosis and increased virion production compared to RV-infectedbronchial epithelial cells from healthy controls. Furthermore, provisionof IFN-β to RV-infected asthmatic bronchial epithelial cells in culturewas shown to cause a significant reduction in infectious virionproduction. These results laid the foundation for proposed newtherapeutic utility of IFN-β in treating rhinovirus-induced exacerbationof asthma (Wark et al., J. Exp. Med. (21 Mar. 2005) 201, 937-947).

Further results have suggested extrapolation of use of IFN-β equally fortreatment of RV-induced exacerbation of COPD, which encompasses a rangeof conditions, including chronic bronchitis and emphysema. COPD is aprogressive disease of the airways that is characterised by a gradualloss of lung function. The symptoms of COPD include chronic cough andsputum production as well as shortness of breath. Cigarette smoking isthe most common cause of COPD.

It has now been determined that IFN-λ polypeptides are strongly inducedby respiratory virus infections including rhinovirus (the most common)and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in human cells. Example 6 andFIGS. 32 to 35 illustrate such induction in bronchial epithelial cells.Furthermore, the interferon-λs induce β and β also induces λ.

By analysing bronchial epithelial cells and bronchoalveolar lavage cellsfrom asthmatic and normal volunteer patients, it has also now been shownthat asthmatic bronchial epithelial cells are additionally deficient inIFN-λ gene expression and protein production when infected withrhinovirus. Such a finding was not previously shown or contemplatedbefore the present invention and leads to the proposal thatadministering one or more IFN-λ polypeptides would also constitute aneffective therapy for the treatment of viral-induced exacerbation ofasthma.

Furthermore, it is suggested that equally IFN-λ polypeptides may bebeneficial in the treatment of viral-induced exacerbation of otherrespiratory disorders such as COPD. By “respiratory disorder”, weinclude in addition to asthma and COPD, allergic bronchopulmonaryaspergillosis, eosinophilic pneumonia, allergic bronchitisbronchiectasis, occupational asthma, reactive airayd disease syndrome,interstitial lung disease, hypereosinophilic syndrome and parasitic lungdisease.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Accordingly, the invention provides the use of an agent selected from:

(a) interferon-β (IFN-β);

(b) an agent that increases IFN-β expression; or

(c) a polynucleotide capable of expressing (a) or (b);

for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment ofrhinovirus-induced exacerbation of a respiratory disease selected fromasthma and COPD, wherein said treatment is by airway delivery of saidmedicament, e.g. by use of an aerosol nebuliser.

The invention further provides a method of treating in an individualrhinovirus-induced exacerbation of a respiratory disease selected fromasthma and COPD comprising airway administration to the individual of anagent selected from the group consisting of:

(a) interferon-β (IFN-β);

(b) an agent that increases IFN-β expression; or

(c) a polynucleotide capable of expressing (a) or (b).

Such treatment may be prophylactic or therapeutic treatment. By“rhinovirus induced” will be understood induction solely by rhinovirusor virus comprising largely but not exclusively rhinovirus.

There is also provided a method of treating a patient with or at risk ofviral-induced exacerbation of a respiratory disorder which comprisesadministering to the patient in a therapeutically effective amount oneor more IFN-λ polypeptides, preferably by airway delivery. As indicatedabove, such therapeutic treatment is of especial interest, for example,in alleviating or preventing the problems of viral-induced exacerbationof asthma, most commonly RV-induced exacerbation of asthma but also suchexacerbation by, for example, RSV or influenza virus. The administrationof the one or more IFN-λ polypeptides may be directly as a polypeptideor via expression from one or more polynucleotides.

The invention further provides the use of an agent selected from:

(a) one or more IFN-λ polypeptides or

(b) a polynucleotide or polynucleotides capable of expressing one ormore IFN-λ polypeptides in target bronchial epithelial cells, in themanufacture of a medicament for administration to treat viral-inducedexacerbation of a respiratory disorder, preferably by airway delivery ofsaid medicament, e.g. by use of an aerosol nebuliser. The individualtreated may be any animal, but preferably the individual treated will bea human, for example, preferably an asthmatic human.

In another aspect, the invention also provides a device containing apharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutic agent which is (i)one or more IFN-λ polypeptides or (ii) one or more polynucleotidescapable of expressing one or more IFN-λ polypeptides as noted above,said device being suitable for airway delivery of said composition. Sucha composition may be supplemented with an additional therapeutic agentused to treat the respiratory disorder for simultaneous, separate orsequential administration. Thus, the additional therapeutic agent may beformulated to provide a single composition or provided in a separatecomposition. Products suitable for such administration regimesconstitute a still further aspect of the invention.

As a preferred embodiment, there is provided a product for treatment ofviral-induced exacerbation of asthma comprising for simultaneous,separate or sequential airway administration (a) at least one IFN-λpolypeptide or a polynucleotide capable of expressing at least one IFN-λpolypeptide in the bronchial epithelial cells to be targeted and (b) aninhaled corticosteroid.

As a consequence of the studies reported herein, it is additionallypostulated that IFN-λ polypeptides may be of benefit in relation to anallergic disorder such as asthma, independent of any viral exacerbation.It is well established that the prevalence of asthma is increasing as isthe prevalence of allergic diseases in general. This increase inprevalence has been suggested to be related to an absence of infectiousdisease, in that those with a high exposure to infectious disease earlyin life have a very low risk of developing asthma and allergies later inlife. It is extrapolated that both IFN-λs and IFN-β may be used as apreventative treatment by mimicking the protective role of infection.

Allergic disorders, including asthma, rhinitis, eczema, food allergiesand anaphylaxis are thought to be related to impaired TH1 immuneresponses which themselves are a consequence of impaired type Iinterferon responses, both the consequence of inadequate exposure toinfectious disease early in life. Data presented herein suggests thatadministering IFN-λs early in life could mimic the protective effect ofinfectious disease, promote type I interferon and TH1 immune responsesand prevent the development of TH2 driven allergic disorders. Thispreventive therapy could be administered early in life but IFN-λs mightalso be administered later in life to treat/cure allergic disorder, inother words to reverse the TH2 driven sensitization and immune responsesto allergens.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIGS. 1 a-1 f show the proinflammatory responses of normal and asthmaticbronchial epithelial cells (BECs) following rhinovirus (RV) infection.Panels (a) and (c): Induction of IL-8 (a) and TNFα (c) mRNA 8 h afterRV-16 infection was measured by qPCR. Asthmatic cells had a median (IQR)fold induction of IL-8 of 33.2 (7.3, 208.6) compared to 101.4 (6.4,802.9) in healthy controls with no significant difference between groups(p=0.8). Both groups demonstrated a significant increase in IL-8 mRNAcompared to cells treated with medium alone (p=0.001) and UV inactivatedRV (p=0.01). For TNFα mRNA, asthmatic cells had a median fold inductionfrom baseline of 94.4 (5.8, 1001.4) compared to 272.9 (30, 676) inhealthy control cells, with no significant difference between the groups(p=0.8). Both groups demonstrated a significant increase in TNF-α mRNAcompared to cells treated with medium alone (p<0.01) and UV inactivatedRV (p<0.01). Panels (b) and (d): IL-8 (b) and TNFα (d) proteinproduction in the supernatant 48 h after RV-16 infection was measured byELISA. Median (IQR) levels of IL-8 were 922 pg/ml (868, 1065) inasthmatic cells compared to 705 pg/ml (414, 979) (p=0.6) in healthycontrols. Both groups demonstrated a significant increase above cellstreated with medium alone (61.4 pg/ml, p<0.001) and UV inactivated RV-16(43.8, P<0.01). Secretion of TNF-α was 10.4 pg/ml (6.9, 29.6) in RV-16infected asthmatic cells and 24.6 pg/ml (9.2, 30.4) in RV-16 infectedhealthy control cells (p=0.7). Both groups demonstrated a significantincrease above cells treated with medium alone (1.85 pg/ml, p<0.01) andUV inactivated RV-16 (4.69, P<0.01). Panels (e) and (f): ICAM-1expression was measured by flow cytometry immediately prior to RV-16infection (e) or 24 h after infection (f). Data are expressed as meanfluorescence intensity (MFI). Prior to infection, asthmatic cells had atendency to a lower median MFI 31(12, 80) compared to healthy controlcells 67 (34, 83) but this was not significant (p=0.3). After 24 h,asthmatic cells had a significantly lower median MFI 54.6 (27.6, 145.2)compared to healthy control cells 110.4 (65, 195.3) (p=0.02). Graphs arebox whisker plots, heavy line represents the median, upper box borderrepresents 75′ quartile, lower 25^(th) quartile, whiskers are 5^(th) and95^(th) centiles. *=significantly different from cells treated withmedium alone and UV inactivated RV-16

FIGS. 2 a-2 d show RV-16 replication and release from normal andasthmatic BECs. Panel (a): RV-16 release into the supernatant ofinfected cells was estimated by calculating the TCID₅₀ from the CPE inconfluent monolayers of Ohio HeLa cells. Values have been logtransformed; data points represent the geometric mean and the standarderror of the mean. By 48 h significantly more RV was detected fromasthmatic cells with a mean TCID₅₀ of 3.99, compared to 0.54 in healthycontrol cells (p<0.01). Panel (b): RV-16 mRNA production was measured byqPCR after 8 h of infection. Median (IQR) production from asthmaticcells was 21×10⁵ (1.6×10⁵, 97×10⁵) compared to 0.4×10⁵ (0.09×10⁵,0.6×10⁵) from healthy controls (p<0.01). Graphs are box whisker plots,heavy line represents the median, upper box border represents 75^(th)quartile, lower 25^(th) quartile, whiskers are 5^(th) and 95^(th)centile. Dots represent outliers. Panels (c) and (d): Cell lysis as aconsequence of RV-16 infection was analysed based on LDH activity inculture supernatants. Values have been log transformed; data pointsrepresent the geometric mean and the standard error of the mean. Bothgroups demonstrated a progressive increase in LDH activity over timethat was significantly increased from baseline by 24 h (p<0.01) inasthmatic cells but not in healthy control cells even at 48 h (p=0.2)(c). By 48 h, the LDH activity from asthmatic cells showed a 3.4 meanfold increase from baseline compared to a 1.34 fold increase in thehealthy control cells (p<0.001) (d). No significant change in LDHactivity was seen in cells treated with medium alone or UV inactivatedRV. *=results from asthmatic cells and healthy controls significantlydifferent (p<0.01). Asthma=●, Healthy controls=◯.

FIGS. 3 a-3 b shows the changes in cell viability following RV-16infection. Following RV-16 infection for 8 h, cells were stained withAnnexin-V conjugated to the flurochrome Phycoerythrin (PE) and the vitaldye 7-Amino-actinomycin (7-AAD) and analysed by flow cytometry. Panel(a): Viable (AxV⁻/7AAD⁻) cell number was determined and expressed as %viability compared with cells treated with medium alone. Infection withRV-16 led to a significant reduction in median (IQR) cell viability inboth asthmatic and control cells compared to medium alone (p=0.03).There was no significant reduction in viability in cells treated withinactivated RV-16 96 (91, 98)%. Asthmatic cells showed significantlybetter viability, median 80 (74, 86)%, compared to healthy controls 63(51, 69)% (p=0.002). Panel (b): Apoptotic (AxV⁺/7AAD⁻) cells were alsoanalyzed 8 h following RV-16 infection. While both groups demonstratedan increase in apoptosis with infection, asthmatic cells appeared moreresistant with a fold increase of only 1.41 (1.35, 1.69), compared to2.19 (1.98, 2.22) in healthy controls (p=0.02). Cells treated withmedium alone did not show an increase in apoptosis. Cells treated withUV inactivated RV-16 did show a small increase above baseline, 1.2 (1.1,1.4) (p=0.02). *=significantly different from cells treated with mediumonly (p<0.01). **=significantly different from asthmatic cells (p<0.05).

FIGS. 4 a-4 c shows caspase activity and its role following RV-16infection. Panel (a): The time course for activation of Caspase 3/7 byRV-16 was determined using the Apo-One Homogenous Caspase 3/7 assay(Promega, Maddison, USA) with the readout adjusted for cell number.Values have been log transformed to enable them to be plotted over time;data points represent the geometric mean and the standard error of themean. There was significant induction of active caspase 3/7 in responseto infection reaching a plateau at 8 h (p<0.01). Asthmatic cells showeda lower induction of active caspase 3/7 (mean (SEM)=1.47 (0.1)) comparedto healthy controls (mean (SEM)=2.16 (0.3); p=0.004). Panel (b): Theeffect of inhibition of caspase-3 using the inhibitor, ZVD-fmk, wasmeasured by flow cytometry, as described in the legend to FIG. 3. Cellswere treated with RV-16 alone or with ZVD-fmk, before and afterinfection with RV-16. Results are expressed as the fold induction inapoptosis seen above control cells treated with medium alone. Inasthmatic cells were there was a median (IQR) induction of apoptosisabove baseline of 1.4 (1.35, 1.68) with RV-16 alone; pre-treatment ofcells with the ZVD-fmk, had little effect on apoptosis (median(IQR)=1.17 (0.96, 1.95); p>0.05). However, in healthy controls cells,RV-16 infection resulted in a median (IQR) induction of apoptosis abovebaseline of 2.19 ((1.98, 2.22) and this was abolished by pretreatmentwith ZVD-fmk (median (IQR)=0.82 (0.78, 0.86); p=0.03). Panel (c): Theeffect of caspase-3 inhibition on RV-16 production was measured by HeLatitration assay on the BEC supernatant removed after 48 h of infection.There was no difference seen in the TCID₅₀ in the supernatant removedfrom asthmatic cells infected with RV-16 (median (IQR)=3.56 (3.50-3.62)compared to infected cells treated with ZVD-fmk (median (IQR)=3.56(3.5-3.62); p=0.94). However for healthy control BECs, the TCID₅₀increased from a median (IQR) value of 0.6(0.4, 0.63) with infectionalone to 2.78 (0.63, 6.32) (p=0.01) in the presence of RV-16 andZVD-fmk. *=significantly different from asthmatic cells ((p<0.01).**=significantly different from cells treated with RV-16 alone.Asthma=●, Healthy controls=◯.

FIGS. 5 a-5 d shows IFNβ production and its role in RV-16 infection.Panel (a): Induction of IFNβ mRNA was measured by qPCR after 8 h ofRV-16 infection. Asthmatic cells demonstrated a median (IQR) foldinduction from baseline control of 0.3 (0.3, 0.8) which was notsignificantly different from cells treated with medium alone or UVinactivated RV-16 but was significantly less when compared to healthycontrols 3.6 (3.4, 3.6) (p=0.004). Panel (b): Release of IFNβ intoculture supernatants 48 h post infection was measured by ELISA. Forasthmatic BECs, median (IQR) IFNβ levels were 721 (464, 1290) pg/ml,compared to 1854 pg/ml (758, 3766) (p=0.03) in healthy controls. Bothgroups demonstrated a significant increase above cells treated withmedium alone (56.4 pg/ml, p<0.001) and UV inactivated RV-16 (113.8pg/ml, P<0.01). Panel (c): The effect of IFNβ on induction of apoptosisin RV-16 infected asthmatic cells was measured by FACS analysis asdescribed in the legend to FIG. 3. Asthmatic cells were eitherpre-treated with IFNβ (100 IU) for 12 h or exposed to RV-16 and thentreated with IFN-β. To mimic the presence of viral RNA, cells were alsoexposed to poly(I):poly(C) a synthetic double stranded RNAoligonucleotide, instead of RV-16. Results are expressed as the foldinduction in apoptosis seen above control cells treated with mediumalone. There was significant increase in apoptosis in cells exposed toeither IFN-β or RV-16 alone (median (IQR) induction of apoptosis=1.11(0.99, 1.94) or 1.57 (0.98, 1.98), respectively. Cells treated withRV-16 and IFNβ together showed a tendency to increased apoptosis (median(IQR)=3.75 (1.12, 5.25); p=0.11) while those pre-treated with IFN-β andthen infected had a significant increase in induction of apoptosis(median (IQR)=5.69 (2.19, 5.69)). Cells exposed to poly(I):poly(C) aloneshowed a small increase in apoptosis (median (IQR)=1.92 (1.34, 4)) whichwas enhanced by treatment with IFN-β (median (IQR)=5.56 (3.15, 5.56)) orpre-treatment with IFN-β (median (IQR)=9.25 (3.46, 9.25); p<0.05). Panel(d): The effect of IFNβ on viral yield from asthmatic cells was measuredby HeLa titration assay using asthmatic BEC culture supernatants removedafter 48 h of infection. Cells were either pre-treated with IFNβ (100IU) for 12 h and then exposed to RV-15 or were treated with IFNβimmediately following infection. There was a significant reduction inviral yield seen in cells treated with IFNβ following infection medianlog TCID₅₀ 2.78 (2, 3.56) and a further reduction in cells pre-treatedwith IFNβ 1.12 (0.28, 1.34) compared to cells infected with RV-16 alone3.56 (3.5-3.62) (p<0.05). *=significantly different from medium aloneand asthmatic cells treated with RV-16. **=significantly different frommedium alone. #=significantly different from RV-16 infection alone.##=significantly different from poly(I):poly(c) alone.

FIG. 6 shows induction of IFN-β mRNA 8 hours after infection of primaryBEC cultures from a non-COPD volunteer and a COPD patient with RV-16 (2moi). IFN-β mRNA was measured by reverse transcription quantitative PCRand normalised to IFN-β levels in untreated (SFM) controls.

FIG. 7 shows a comparison of viral replication 24 hours after RV-16infection (2 moi) of BEC cultures from a non-COPD and a COPD patient.Virion production was measured as TCID₅₀/ml as determined by HeLa celltitration assay.

FIG. 8 shows induction of IFN-β mRNA 8 hours after infection of primaryBECs from a COPD patient with RV-16 (2 moi) in the absence or presenceof exogeneous IFN-β. IFN-β mRNA was measured by reverse transcriptionquantitative PCR and normalised to IFN-β levels in untreated (SFM)controls.

FIG. 9 shows that IFN-β reduced RV-16 replication in BECs from a COPDpatient. Cells were infected with RV-16 (2 moi) in the absence orpresence of exogeneous IFN-β (100 IU/ml). Virion production was measuredas TCID₅₀/ml by HeLA cell titration assay.

FIG. 10. Rhinovirus and RSV both strongly induce interferon lambda mRNAexpression in the human bronchial epithelial cell line BEAS2B.

FIG. 11. Rhinovirus and RSV both strongly induce interferon lambda mRNAexpression in the human bronchial epithelial cell line BEAS2B. Same dataas FIG. 10.

FIG. 12. A dose response as stated showing that rhinovirus induction ofboth IFNλ-1 and IFNλ-⅔ are dose responsive.

FIG. 13. Multiple serotypes of rhinovirus of both major and minor groupsinduce IFNλs. Since the induction is not observed with UV inactivatedviruses, the induction is replication dependent.

FIG. 14. IFNλs are induced from peripheral blood mononuclear cells fromhealthy volunteers in response to rhinovirus infection, inductionpeaking at 8 hours but still being significant at 24 hours.

FIG. 15. IFNλs are induced from human macrophages by rhinovirus and RSV.

FIG. 16. Biological activity with activation of STAT1 by rhinovirusinfection. In this experiment supernatants from rhinovirus infectedBEAS2B cells were inoculated onto a reporter cell line expressingrecombinant lambda receptor and STAT1 activation assessed by gel shiftassay. Clear induction of STAT1 activation is observed with supernatantsfrom virus infected bronchial epithelial cells but not control cells.

FIG. 17. IFNλ-1 has antiviral activity in a dose response manner,reducing rhinovirus 16 viral RNA expression in BEAS2B cells as well asreducing virus release in the supernatant of BEAS2B cells as measured bya HeLa cell titration assay. Viral RNA copy number was assessed byquantitative PCR.

FIG. 18. Anti-viral activity in the HeLa cell titration assay showingthat virus induced cytopathic effect is inhibited by IFNλ-1 to a similardegree as that observed with interferon β.

FIG. 19. IFNλ-1 induces itself as well as IFNλ 2-3 and interferon β inBEAS2B cells. Similarly interferon β induces itself as well as inducingboth IFNλ-1 and IFNλ 2-3. There is thus positive feedback between type 1and type III interferon sub-types.

FIG. 20. IFNλs induce pro-inflammatory cytokines by themselves in a doseresponsive manner and markedly enhance induction of pro-inflammatorycytokines in response to rhinovirus 16 expression, again in a doseresponsive manner. These properties are observed in BEAS2B cells andindicate that IFNλs augment responses likely to recruit otherinflammatory cells to virus infected epithelium. The right panel showsthe same for interferon β.

FIG. 21. RSV infection of BEAS2B cells results in increased IFNλ proteinrelease into the supernatant in a time responsive manner, peaking at 24hours.

FIG. 22. Rhinovirus infection of BEAS2B cells also induces IFNλ proteinrelease into the supernatants of BEAS2B cells in a dose responsivemanner.

FIG. 23. Multiple serotypes of rhinovirus result in release of IFNλproteins into supernatants of BEAS2B cells. Again, both major and minorserotypes and again in a replication dependent manner.

FIG. 24. Rhinovirus infection of peripheral blood mononuclear cells fromhealthy donors leads to an increase in IFNλ protein secretion intosupernatants in a time dependent manner.

FIG. 25. Both rhinovirus and RSV infection of human macrophages resultsin IFNλ release into supernatants.

FIG. 26. Primary bronchial epithelial cells derived from asthmatic andhealthy donors indicate that asthmatic epithelial cells havesignificantly increased virus replication compared to the normalepithelial cells. The difference in viral RNA copy number was assessedby quantitative PCR. Asthmatic epithelial cells produce more than onelog greater viral RNA load than normal epithelial cells.

FIG. 27. IFNλ mRNA expression in response to rhinovirus infection inhealthy and asthmatic epithelial cells is induced. However, induction isdeficient in asthmatic relative to normal cells for IFNλs. IFNλ mRNAexpression was quantified by quantitative PCR. Induction of IFNλ wasreplication dependent. Normal volunteers produced more than one loggreater amounts of IFNλ mRNA than did asthmatic subjects.

FIG. 28. IFNλ protein is induced by rhinovirus infection in both normaland asthmatic bronchial epithelial cells. Levels produced by normalepithelial cells once again are greater than those produced by asthmaticepithelial cells.

FIG. 29. IFNλ mRNA expression in primary human bronchial epithelialcells is strongly related to virus load. The greater the IFNλexpression, the less virus replication occurred. This data indicatesthat IFNλ is associated with anti-viral activity in primary humanbronchial epithelial cells.

FIG. 30. IFNλ production in response to both rhinovirus infection andLPS stimulation of bronchoalveolar lavage cell pellets is deficient inasthmatics relative to normal individuals. Normally, more than 80% ofbronchoalveolar lavage cells are macrophages. This data indicates thatasthmatics are deficient in terms of IFNλ production from macrophages aswell as the previous data from the epithelial cells.

FIG. 31. IFNλ production from bronchoalveolar cell supernatantsstimulated ex vivo with rhinovirus. IFNλ production in response torhinovirus infection of bronchoalveolar lavage cell pellets is stronglyrelated to severity of clinical colds, severity of reductions in lungfunction and to virus load in asthmatic and normal subjectsexperimentally infected with rhinovirus in vivo. In these experiments

production from bronchoalveolar lavage cell pellets in response torhinovirus infection in vitro was determined at baseline, and subjectswere then infected with rhinovirus in vivo 2 weeks later. During this invivo infection, cold symptoms, reductions in lung function and lowerairway virus load were all assessed to monitor severity of clinicalillness during an in vivo infection. IFNλ production at baseline wasstrongly related to severity of colds, severity of asthma exacerbationas determined by reductions in lung function, and to bronchoalveolaorlavage virus load during the in vivo infection. These data clearlyindicate that IFNλ production is a major determinant of severity ofclinical illness during respiratory virus infections in vivo, andindicate that IFNλ administration should reduce symptoms, virus load andseverity of reductions in lung function during respiratory virusinfection in asthmatic subjects.

FIG. 32. Time course of induction of type I and type III interferons inresponse to rhinovirus 16 infection in BEAS-2B cells.

(a) The mRNA expression of different alpha interferon subtypes wasstudied by Taqman PCR. For detection of various alpha interferonsubtypes two pairs of Taqman PCR primers and probes were selected. Firstprimer and probe set detects subtypes 1, 6 and 13, second primer andprobe set detects subtypes 4, 5, 8, 10, 14, 17, 21. The expression oftype 1 interferons was detected by first primer pair —IFNA.1, but nosignificant induction of mRNA expression of these type 1 interferons byrhinovirus 16 was found. Using the second primer pair —IFNA.2 astatistically significant increase of type 1 interferon mRNA expressionin comparison to medium was observed, but only at 8 hours from infection(p<0.001).

(b) The expression of IL-29 and beta interferon mRNA was studied byTaqman PCR in the same experiments. The induction of IL-29 mRNAexpression by rhinovirus 16 was statistically significant increased at 8hour time point and we detected even higher induction by 24 hours(p<0.001). IFN beta mRNA expression was also induced by rhinovirus 16 at24 hours (p<0.001). Thus IFNλ mRNA production occurred earlier thanbeta, was more sustained than alpha and was induced to a greater degreethan either alpha or beta IFN production.

(c) The production of interferon-beta was measured by ELISA in the sameexperiments. By 24 hours statistically significant induction ofinterferon-beta protein was detected in rhinovirus 16 infected BEAS-2Bcells (p<0.01).

(d) The production of IL-29 was measured by ELISA in the sameexperiments. By 24 hours statistically significant induction of IL-29protein was detected in rhinovirus 16 infected BEAS-2B cells (p<0.001).Thus consistent with the mRNA data, production of IFNλ protein was 5fold greater than production of beta IFN. Alpha IFN proteins wereundetectable in these experiments.

FIG. 33. Time course of IFN production in response to rhinovirus 16infection in primary human bronchial epithelial cells

(a) The mRNA expression of different alpha interferon types was assessedduring a rhinovirus 16 time course at 0, 4, 8 and 24-hour time points inhuman bronchial epithelial cells by Taqman PCR. Alpha-interferonsdetected by IFNA.1 primer pair were not induced by rhinovirus 16 whilethose detected by the IFNA.2 were significantly induced (p<0.01) overmedium at 8 hours but at 24 hours there was no statistically significantinduction.

(b) The expression of IL-29 and beta interferon mRNA in human bronchialepithelial cells infected by rhinovirus 16 was studied by Taqman PCR inthe same experiments. IL-29 mRNA expression was significantly induced at24 hours (p<0.001). Interferon-beta demonstrated no significantinduction at any time point.

FIG. 34. Time course of IFN production in response to rhinovirus 1Binfection in human bronchial epithelial cells.

IFN alpha, IFN beta and IL-29 mRNA expression was also assessed during arhinovirus 1B time course at 0, 4, 8 and 24-hour time points by TaqmanPCR.

(a) Alpha-interferons detected by IFNA.1 primer pair were not induced byrhinovirus 16. mRNA of alpha-interferons detected by second primer pairIFNA.2 were induced by rhinovirus 1B at 8 and 24 hours (p<0.05).

(b) With IL-29 a very high level of induction (2 logs greater than thosedetected by the IFNA.2 primer pair) was detected at 24 hours (p<0.001).Induction of interferon-beta mRNA was also detected at 24 hours(p<0.01), though this induction was 1 log less than that observed forIL-29.

FIG. 35. Time course of IFN production in response to influenza virusinfection in human bronchial epithelial cells.

(a) The expression of different alpha interferon types mRNA was assessedduring a influenza virus time course at 0, 4, 8 and 24-hour time pointsin human bronchial epithelial cells by Taqman PCR. Neitheralpha-interferons detected by the IFNA.1 primer pair nor those detectedby the IFNA.2 primer pair were significantly induced by influenza virusat any time point.

(b) The expression of IL-29 and beta-interferon mRNA was studied inhuman bronchial epithelial cells infected by influenza virus by TaqmanPCR in the same experiments. IL-29 significantly induced by influenzavirus at 8 hours after infection (p<0.001) and increased further at 24hrs. Interferon-beta mRNA induction was not significantly induced at anytime point, though increases were observed at 8 and 24 hrs. IL-29 mRNAexpression was greater than that of alpha and beta IFNs at all timepoints.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEQUENCE LISTING

SEQ ID NO: 1 shows the nucleotide sequence of human IFNβ-1a.

SEQ ID NO: 2 shows the amino acid sequence of human IFNβ-1a.

SEQ ID NO: 3 shows the nucleotide sequence of human IFNβ-1b.

SEQ ID NO: 4 shows the amino acid sequence of human IFNβ-1b. IFNβ-1b isidentical to human IFNβ-1a except for replacement of the cysteine atresidue 17 with serine.

SEQ.ID.NO: 5 shows the amino acid sequence of IFNλ-1

SEQ.ID.NO: 6 shows the amino acid sequence of IFNλ-2

SEQ.ID.NO: 7 shows the amino acid sequence of IFNλ-3

The remaining SEQ ID NOs relate to oligonucleotide probes and primersreferred to in the Examples.

As hereinbefore indicated, the present invention relates to newtherapeutic uses for IFN-β. In particular, it relates, for example, totherapeutic use of IFN-β by airway delivery to promote apoptosis inbronchial epithelial cells of asthmatic patients infected withrhinovirus. The invention as presented also extends to airway deliveryof IFN-β to treat rhinovirus-induced exacerbation of COPD.

Definition of IFN-β

The term IFN-β as used herein will be understood to refer to any form oranalog of IFN-β that retains the biological activity of native IFN-β andpreferably retains the activity of IFN-β that is present in the lungand, in particular, the bronchial epithelium.

The IFN-λ may be identical to or comprise the sequence of human IFNβ-1a(SEQ ID NO: 2) or human IFNβ-1b (SEQ ID NO: 4). IFN-β also refers to avariant polypeptide having an amino acid sequence which varies from thatof SEQ ID NO: 2 or 4. Alternatively, IFN-β may be chemically-modified.

A variant of IFN-β may be a naturally occurring variant, for example avariant which is expressed by a non-human species. Also, variants ofIFN-β include sequences which vary from SEQ ID NO: 2 or 4 but are notnecessarily naturally occurring. Over the entire length of the aminoacid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 4, a variant will preferably be atleast 80% homologous to that sequence based on amino acid identity. Morepreferably, the polypeptide is at least 85% or 90% and more preferablyat least 95%, 97% or 99% homologous based on amino acid identity to theamino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 4 over the entire sequence. Theremay be at least 80%, for example at least 85%, 90% or 95%, amino acididentity over a stretch of 40 or more, for example 60, 80, 100, 120, 140or 160 or more, contiguous amino acids (“hard homology”).

Homology may be determined using any method known in the art. Forexample the UWGCG Package provides the BESTFIT program which can be usedto calculate homology, for example used on its default settings(Devereux et al (1984)Nucleic Acids Research 12, p 387-395). The PILEUPand BLAST algorithms can be used to calculate homology or line upsequences (such as identifying equivalent residues or correspondingsequences (typically on their default settings)), for example asdescribed in Altschul S. F. (1993) J Mol Evol 36:290-300; Altschul, S. Fet al (1990) J Mol Biol 215:403-10.

Software for performing BLAST analyses is publicly available through theNational Center for Biotechnology Information(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/). This algorithm involves firstidentifying high scoring sequence pair (HSPs) by identifying short wordsof length W in the query sequence that either match or satisfy somepositive-valued threshold score T when aligned with a word of the samelength in a database sequence. T is referred to as the neighbourhoodword score threshold (Altschul et al, supra). These initialneighbourhood word hits act as seeds for initiating searches to findHSP's containing them. The word hits are extended in both directionsalong each sequence for as far as the cumulative alignment score can beincreased. Extensions for the word hits in each direction are haltedwhen: the cumulative alignment score falls off by the quantity X fromits maximum achieved value; the cumulative score goes to zero or below,due to the accumulation of one or more negative-scoring residuealignments; or the end of either sequence is reached. The BLASTalgorithm parameters W, T and X determine the sensitivity and speed ofthe alignment. The BLAST program uses as defaults a word length (W) of11, the BLOSUM62 scoring matrix (see Henikoff and Henikoff (1992) Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89: 10915-10919) alignments (B) of 50, expectation(E) of 10, M=5, N=4, and a comparison of both strands.

The BLAST algorithm performs a statistical analysis of the similaritybetween two sequences; see e.g., Karlin and Altschul (1993)Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. USA 90: 5873-5787. One measure of similarity provided by theBLAST algorithm is the smallest sum probability (P(N)), which providesan indication of the probability by which a match between two nucleotideor amino acid sequences would occur by chance. For example, a sequenceis considered similar to another sequence if the smallest sumprobability in comparison of the first sequence to the second sequenceis less than about 1, preferably less than about 0.1, more preferablyless than about 0.01, and most preferably less than about 0.001.

Amino acid substitutions may be made to the amino acid sequence of SEQID NO: 1 or 2, for example from 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 to 10, 20 or 30substitutions. Conservative substitutions may be made, for example,according to Table 1. Amino acids in the same block in the second columnand preferably in the same line in the third column may be substitutedfor each other:

TABLE 1 Conservative amino acid substitutions NON-AROMATIC Non-polar G AP I L V Polar - uncharged C S T M N Q Polar - charged D E H K R AROMATICH F W Y

One or more amino acid residues of the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 or 2 may alternatively or additionally be deleted. From 1, 2, 3, 4 or5 to 10, 20 or 30 residues may be deleted, or more.

IFN-β also includes fragments of the above-mentioned sequences. Suchfragments retain IFN-β activity. Fragments may be at least from 120 or140 amino acids in length. Such fragments may be used to producechimeric agents as described in more detail below.

IFN-β includes chimeric proteins comprising fragments or portions of SEQID NO: 2 or 4. One or more amino acids may be alternatively oradditionally added to the polypeptides described above. An extension maybe provided at the N-terminus or C-terminus of the amino acid sequenceof SEQ ID NO: 2 or 4 or polypeptide variant or fragment thereof. Theextension may be quite short, for example from 1 to 10 amino acids inlength. Alternatively, the extension may be longer. A carrier proteinmay be fused to an amino acid sequence described above. A fusion proteinincorporating one of the polypeptides described above can thus be usedin the invention.

IFN-β also includes SEQ ID NO: 2 or 4 or variants thereof that have beenchemically-modified. A number of side chain modifications are known inthe art and may be made to the side chains of the proteins or peptidesdiscussed above. Such modifications include, for example, glycosylation,phosphorylation, modifications of amino acids by reductive alkylation byreaction with an aldehyde followed by reduction with NaBH₄, amidinationwith methylacetimidate or acylation with acetic anhydride. Themodification is preferably glycosylation.

The IFN-β may be made synthetically or by recombinant means usingmethods known in the art. The amino acid sequence of proteins andpolypeptides may be modified to include non-naturally occurring aminoacids or to increase the stability of the compound. When the proteins orpeptides are produced by synthetic means, such amino acids may beintroduced during production. The proteins or peptides may also bemodified following either synthetic or recombinant production.

The IFN-β may also be produced using D-amino acids. In such cases theamino acids will be linked in reverse sequence in the C to Norientation. This is conventional in the art for producing such proteinsor peptides.

The IFN-β may be produced in a cell by in situ expression of thepolypeptide from a recombinant expression vector. The expression vectoroptionally carries an inducible promoter to control the expression ofthe polypeptide. The IFN-β or analog thereof may be produced in largescale following purification by any protein liquid chromatography systemafter recombinant expression. Preferred protein liquid chromatographysystems include FPLC, AKTA systems, the Bio-Cad system, the Bio-RadBioLogic system and the Gilson HPLC system.

Commercially available forms of IFN-β or analogs thereof may be used inthe invention. Examples include Betaseron® and Avonex®.

Agents that Increase IFN-β Expression

The invention may also involve using an agent that increases endogenousexpression of IFN-β in the lung or preferably the bronchial epithelium.The agents may act directly on the promoter or other regulatorysequences of the IFN-β gene. Such agents may act to reduce theconstitutive silencing of the IFN-β promoter. Alternatively, the agentmay stimulate cells to produce endogenous IFN-β by acting at receptorsat the cell surface. Agents that increases endogenous expression ofIFN-β of interest in relation to the present invention include, but areno limited to, poly(inosinic acid)-poly(cytidylic acid) (poly(IC)) andthe ACE inhibitor perindopril.

Polynucleotides

The invention may also involve using a polynucleotide which is capableof expressing IFN-β or an agent that increases endogenous expression ofIFN-β in lung airways. Such a polynucleotide may preferably be in theform of a vector capable of directing expression of INF-β an agent thatinduces IFN-β in the bronchial epithelium. The resulting IFN-β or agentmay then have a therapeutic effect (“gene therapy”). The polynucleotidemay encode any of the forms of IFN-β discussed above including thevariants, fragments and chimeric proteins thereof.

The polynucleotide encoding IFN-β may comprise the human sequence (SEQID NO: 1 or 3) or a naturally occurring sequence variant, for example avariant which is expressed by a non-human species. Also, apolynucleotide encoding IFN-βinclude sequences which vary from SEQ IDNO: 1 or 3 but are not necessarily naturally occurring. Over the entirelength of the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 or 3, a variant willpreferably be at least 80% homologous to that sequence based onnucleotide identity. More preferably, the polynucleotide is at least 85%or 90% and more preferably at least 95%, 97% or 99% homologous based onnucleotide identity to the nucleotide of SEQ ID NO: 1 or 3 over theentire sequence. There may be at least 80%, for example at least 85%,90% or 95%, nucleotide identity over a stretch of 40 or more, forexample 60, 80, 100, 120, 140 or 160 or more, contiguous nucleotides(“hard homology”). Homology may be determined as discussed above.

The polynucleotides may comprise DNA or RNA but preferably comprise DNA.They may also be polynucleotides which include within them synthetic ormodified nucleotides. A number of different types of modification topolynucleotides are known in the art. These include methylphosphate andphosphorothioate backbones, addition of acridine or polylysine chains atthe 3′ and/or 5′ ends of the molecule. For the purposes of the presentinvention, it is to be understood that the polynucleotides describedherein may be modified by any method available in the art.

Polynucleotides such as a DNA polynucleotide may be producedrecombinantly, synthetically, or by any means available to those ofskill in the art. They may also be cloned by standard techniques. Thepolynucleotides are typically provided in isolated and/or purified form.

Polynucleotides will generally be produced using recombinant means, forexample using PCR (polymerase chain reaction) cloning techniques. Thiswill involve making a pair of primers (e.g. of about 15-30 nucleotides)to a region of the required gene which it is desired to clone, bringingthe primers into contact with DNA obtained from a suitable cell,performing a polymerase chain reaction under conditions which bringabout amplification of the desired region, isolating the amplifiedfragment (e.g. by purifying the reaction mixture on an agarose gel) andrecovering the amplified DNA. The primers may be designed to containsuitable restriction enzyme recognition sites so that the amplified DNAcan be cloned into a suitable cloning vector.

Although in general the techniques mentioned herein are well known inthe art, reference may be made in particular to Sambrook et al, 1989.

As hereinbefore indicated, preferably the polynucleotide is used in anexpression vector wherein it is operably linked to a control sequencewhich is capable of providing for the expression of the coding sequencein the airways of human lung.

Expression vectors for use in accordance with the invention may be anytype of vector conventionally employed for gene therapy. It may be aplasmid expression vector administered as naked DNA or complexed withone or more cationic amphiphiles, e.g one or more cationic lipids, e.g.in the form of DNA/liposomes. A viral vector may alternatively beemployed. Vectors for expression of therapeutic proteins in the airwaysof human lung have previously been described. For example, PublishedInternational Application WO 01/91800 (Isis Innovation Limited)describes for such purpose expression vectors including the humanubiquitin C promoter or functional analogues thereof. The humanubiquitin C promoter has been shown to be capable of producing highlevel protein expression in the airways of mice over many weeks andhence has been proposed as a favoured promoter for use in airway genetherapy for a variety of respiratory diseases. Examples of expressionvectors for use in directing transgene expression in airway epitheliahave also been described in Chow et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1997;94: 14695-14700. Such expression vectors can be administered via theairways, e.g into the nasal cavity or trachea.

Virally-Induced Exacerbations of Respiratory Disease

In the present invention, an apoptosis-inducing agent is used to treatvirally-induced exacerbations of respiratory disease. A virally-inducedexacerbation of a respiratory disease is an increase in the severity ofa respiratory disease that results from the presence of a virus, such asrhinovirus. The virus typically leads to a worsening of the symptomsassociated with the respiratory disease, a reduced response to therapyand in some cases hospitalisation. The virus typically infects the lungtissue, including or especially the bronchial epithelium. Generally, thevirus results in the release of inflammatory mediators and increasedbronchial responsiveness. As hereinbefore indicated, rhinovirus isrecognised as a common pathogen trigger of asthma exacerbation.Similarly, rhinovirus may promote undesirable exacerbation of otherrespiratory diseases. Thus, respiratory diseases of interest in relationto the present invention also include conditions which may be labelledCOPD.

Therapy

Administration of IFN-β, an agent that increases IFN-β expression or apolynucleotide as discussed above may be either for prophylactic ortherapeutic purpose. When provided prophylactically, the IFN-β, agent orpolynucleotide is provided in advance of any exacerbation. Theprophylactic administration of the IFN-β, agent or polynucleotide servesto prevent or attenuate any subsequent exacerbation. When providedtherapeutically the IFN-β, agent or polynucleotide is provided at (orshortly after) the onset of a symptom of the exacerbation. Thetherapeutic administration of the IFN-β, agent or polynucleotide servesto attenuate any actual exacerbation. The individual treated may be anyanimal, but preferably the individual treated will be a human, mostpreferably an asthmatic human.

The IFN-β, agent or polynucleotide may be administered in a medicamentor pharmaceutical composition suitable for airway delivery which willtypically also include a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. Such an“excipient” generally refers to a substantially inert material that isnontoxic and does not interact with other components of the compositionin a deleterious manner.

Pharmaceutically acceptable excipients include, but are not limited to,liquids such as water, saline, polyethyleneglycol, hyaluronic acid,glycerol and ethanol. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts can be includedtherein, for example, mineral acid salts such as hydrochlorides,hydrobromides, phosphates, sulphates, and the like; and the salts oforganic acids such as acetates, propionates, malonates, benzoates, andthe like.

It is also preferred, although not required, that a composition ormedicament comprising the therapeutic agent will contain apharmaceutically acceptable carrier that serves as a stabilizer,particularly for peptide, protein, polynucleotide or other like agents.Examples of suitable carriers that also act as stabilizers for peptidesinclude, without limitation, pharmaceutical grades of dextrose, sucrose,lactose, trehalose, mannitol, sorbitol, inositol, dextran, and the like.Other suitable carriers include, again without limitation, starch,cellulose, sodium or calcium phosphates, citric acid, tartaric acid,glycine, high molecular weight polyethylene glycols (PEGs), andcombination thereof. It may also be useful to employ a charged lipidand/or detergent. Suitable charged lipids include, without limitation,phosphatidylcholines (lecithin), and the like. Detergents will typicallybe a nonionic, anionic, cationic or amphoteric surfactant. Examples ofsuitable surfactants include, for example, Tergitol® and Triton®surfactants (Union Carbide Chemicals and Plastics, Danbury, Conn.),polyoxyethylenesorbitans, for example, TWEEN® surfactants (AtlasChemical Industries, Wilmington, Del.), polyoxyethylene ethers, forexample Brij, pharmaceutically acceptable fatty acid esters, forexample, lauryl sulfate and salts thereof (SDS), and like materials. Athorough discussion of pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, carriers,stabilizers and other auxiliary substances is available in RemingtonsPharmaceutical Sciences (Mack Pub. Co., N.J. 1991).

A suitable composition for airway delivery of IFN-β may, for example, beformulated as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,030,609 by dissolvinglyophilised IFN-β in a pharmaceutically acceptable vehicle such assterile distilled water or sterile physiological saline, optionally withaddition of one or more carriers, stabilizers, surfactants or otheragents in order to enhance effectiveness of the IFN-β active agent.

A composition comprising a prophylactically or therapeutically effectiveamount of the IFN-β, agent or polynucleotide described herein mayconveniently be delivered to the lung airways by means of an aerosolnebuliser. An appropriate effective amount may be determined byappropriate clinical testing and will vary with for example the activityof the IFN-β administered or induced. The IFN-β, agent or polynucleotidemay for example, be administered in microgram amounts. They areadministered to the subject to be treated in a manner compatible withthe dosage formulation, and in an amount that will be effective to bringabout the desired effect. The amount to be delivered may be 1 μg to 5mg, for example 1 to 50 μg, depending on the subject to be treated. Theexact amount necessary will vary depending on the age and generalcondition of the individual being treated and agent selected, as well asother factors. For example, 250 μg of IFN-β may be administered everyalternate day or 30 μg of IFN-β may be administered weekly (Cook, JNeurol, 2003; 250 Suppl 4: 15-20; Durelli, J Neurol 2003; 250 Suppl 4:9-14).

The IFN-β, agent or polynucleotide may be administered on its own or incombination with another therapeutic compound. In particular, the IFN-β,agent or polynucleotide may be administered in conjunction with atherapeutic compound used to treat the respiratory disease in theindividual. The IFN-β, agent or polynucleotide and additionaltherapeutic compound may be formulated in the same or differentcompositions. In one embodiment, the IFN-β, agent or polynucleotide isadministered to an individual with asthma in combination with an inhaledcorticosteroid. The IFN-β, agent or polynucleotide may be administeredsimultaneously, sequentially or separately with an inhaledcorticosteroid.

Thus, in a further aspect of the present invention there is provided aproduct for treatment of asthma comprising for simultaneous, separate orsequential airway administration (i) a first agent selected from (a)IFN-β, (b) an agent that increases IFN-β expression and (c) apolynucleotide capable of expressing (a) or (b) and (ii) an inhaledcorticosteriod. Preferably, such a product will provide forsimultaneous, separate or sequential administration of IFN-β and aninhaled corticosteroid, for example, fluticasone, beclomethasone andbudesonide.

A first agent as defined above and an inhaled corticosteriod may, forexample, be provided in the form of a single pharmaceutical compositionsuitable for aerosol delivery to the airways.

As indicated above, there are also now provided novel medical uses ofinterferon lambda (IFN-λ). A preferred use of IFN-λ polypeptides nowpresented is to alleviate or prevent viral-induced exacerbation ofasthma, especially in humans. Such viral-induced exacerbation will mostcommonly be the result of RV-infection. However, the invention isequally applicable to asthma exacerbation by other viral infectionsincluding RSV infection and influenza infection.

Methods of diagnosing whether a patient has or is suffering from arespiratory disorder are well known in the art. For example, guidelinesfor diagnosing asthma are provided by the Global Initiative for Asthma(GINA) as part of a publication titled: “Pocket guide for asthmaprevention and management”, which is available from www.ginasthma.com.Similarly, guidelines for diagnosing COPD are provided by the GlobalInitiative for Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) as part of a publicationtitled: “Pocket guide to COPD diagnosis, management and prevention: aguide for heath care professionals”, which is available fromwww.goldcopd.com. Relevant extracts from both of these documents areprovided in the accompanying examples.

A method of the invention may comprise administering one IFNλpolypeptide or the patient may be administered a mixture of IFNλ-1 andIFNλ-2, or a mixture of IFNλ-1 and IFNλ-3, or a mixture of IFNλ-2 andIFNλ-3, or a mixture of IFNλ-1, IFNλ-2 and IFNλ-3.

By “IFNλ polypeptide” we include those polypeptides disclosed in GenBankaccession numbers Q8IU54, Q8IZJ0, Q8IZI9, and set out below:

maaawtvvlv tlvlglavag pvptskpttt gkgchigrfk slspqelasf kkardaleeslklknwscss pvfpgnwdlr llqvrerpva leaelaltlk vleaaagpal edvldqplhtlhhilsqlqa ciqpqptagp rprgrlhhwl hrlqeapkke sagcleasvt fnlfrlltrdlkyvadgnlc lrtsthpest (IFNλ-1)(SEQ ID NO: 5) mkldmtgdct pvlvlmaavltvtgavpvar lhgalpdarg chiaqfksls pqelqafkra kdaleeslll kdcrchsrlfprtwdlrqlq vrerpmalea elaltlkvle atadtdpalv dvldqplhtl hhilsqfraciqpqptagpr trgrlhhwly rlqeapkkes pgcleasvtf nlfrlltrdl ncvasgdlcv(IFNλ-2)(SEQ ID NO: 6) mkldmtgdcm pvlvlmaavl tvtgavpvar lrgalpdargchiaqfksls pqelqafkra kdaleeslll kdckcrsrlf prtwdlrqlq vrerpvaleaelaltlkvle atadtdpalg dvldqplhtl hhilsqlrac iqpqptagpr trgrlhhwlhrlqeapkkes pgcleasvtf nlfrlltrdl ncvasgdlcv (IFNλ-3)(SEQ ID NO: 7)

By “IFNλ polypeptide” is included any full length naturally occurringIFNλ polypeptide or fragment thereof, or any variant thereof.

“Fragments” or “variants” of an IFNλ polypeptide are those which havesubstantially the same or more biological activity of IFNλ polypeptideso as to be useful as therapeutic agents in the method of the invention.Such variants and fragments will usually include at least one region ofat least five consecutive amino acids which has at least 90% homologywith the most homologous five or more consecutive amino acids region ofthe said polypeptide. A fragment is less than 100% of the wholepolypeptide.

The biological activity of “fragments” or “variants” of an IFNλpolypeptide may be determined by, for example, measuring the anti-viralactivity of such a polypeptide against RV infection in bronchialepithelial cells, as described in Example 1 below. By “substantially thesame or more” we include where the “fragments” or “variants” of an IFNλpolypeptide has at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 100% or more ofthe biological activity of IFNλ polypeptide.

It will be recognised by those skilled in the art that the IFNλpolypeptides may be modified by known polypeptide modificationtechniques. These include the techniques disclosed in U.S. Pat. No.4,302,386 issued 24 Nov. 1981 to Stevens, incorporated herein byreference. Such modifications may enhance biological activity to beuseful as therapeutic agents. For example, a few amino acid residues maybe changed. Unwanted sequences can be removed by techniques well knownin the art. For example, the sequences can be removed via limitedproteolytic digestion using enzymes such as trypsin or papain or relatedproteolytic enzymes.

Thus, the IFNλ polypeptides of use in a method of the invention includemodified polypeptides, including synthetically derived polypeptides orfragments of the original polypeptide.

The IFNλ polypeptide may be prepared from a number of different sources.For example, recombinant IFNλ polypeptide can be expressed in a cellusing a number of different expression systems (both prokaryotic oreukaryotic) and isolated, optionally with a protein tag. RecombinantIFNλ polypeptide may be secreted into a supernatant and the recombinantpolypeptide may then be purified from the supernatant.

Methods by which recombinant polypeptide can be expressed and purifiedfrom cells are well known in the art and are routine procedure which canbe performed by the skilled person. Such methods are disclosed in, forexample, and are provided in, for example, Sambrook et al., MolecularCloning: A Laboratory Manual. 2001. 3rd edition.

In general, DNA encoding the desired IFNλ polypeptide is expressed in asuitable microbial host cell. Thus, DNA encoding IFNλ polypeptide may beused in accordance with known techniques, appropriately modified in viewof the teachings contained herein, to construct an expression vector,which is then used to transform an appropriate host cell for theexpression and production of IFNλ polypeptide. Such techniques includethose disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,440,859 issued 3 Apr. 1984 to Rutteret al, 4,530,901 issued 23 Jul. 1985 to Weissman, 4,582,800 issued 15Apr. 1986 to Crowl, 4,677,063 issued 30 Jun. 1987 to Mark et al,4,678,751 issued 7 Jul. 1987 to Goeddel, 4,704,362 issued 3 Nov. 1987 toItakura et al, 4,710,463 issued 1 Dec. 1987 to Murray, 4,757,006 issued12 Jul. 1988 to Toole, Jr. et al, 4,766,075 issued 23 Aug. 1988 toGoeddel et al and 4,810,648 issued 7 Mar. 1989 to Stalker, all of whichare incorporated herein by reference.

The DNA encoding IFNλ polypeptide may be joined to a wide variety ofother DNA sequences for introduction into an appropriate host. Thecompanion DNA will depend upon the nature of the host, the manner of theintroduction of the DNA into the host, and whether episomal maintenanceor integration is desired.

Generally, the DNA is inserted into an expression vector, such as aplasmid, in proper orientation and correct reading frame for expression.If necessary, the DNA may be linked to the appropriate transcriptionaland translational regulatory control nucleotide sequences recognized bythe desired host, although such controls are generally available in theexpression vector. Thus, the DNA insert may be operatively linked to anappropriate promoter. Bacterial promoters include the E. coli lacI andlacZ promoters, the T3 and T7 promoters, the gpt promoter, the phage λPR and PL promoters, the phoA promoter and the trp promoter. Eukaryoticpromoters include the CMV immediate early promoter, the HSV thymidinekinase promoter, the early and late SV40 promoters and the promoters ofretroviral LTRs. Other suitable promoters will be known to the skilledartisan. The expression constructs will desirably also contain sites fortranscription initiation and termination, and in the transcribed region,a ribosome binding site for translation. (Hastings et al, InternationalPatent No. WO 98/16643, published 23 Apr. 1998).

The vector is then introduced into the host through standard techniques.Generally, not all of the hosts will be transformed by the vector and itwill therefore be necessary to select for transformed host cells. Oneselection technique involves incorporating into an expression vectorcontaining any necessary control elements a DNA sequence marker thatcodes for a selectable trait in the transformed cell. These markersinclude dihydrofolate reductase, G418 or neomycin resistance foreukaryotic cell culture, and tetracyclin, kanamycin or ampicillinresistance genes for culturing in E. coli and other bacteria. Theselectable markers could also be those which complement auxotrophisms inthe host. Alternatively, the gene for such a selectable trait can be onanother vector, which is used to co-transform the desired host cell.

Host cells that have been transformed by DNA encoding IFNλ polypeptideare then cultured for a sufficient time and under appropriate conditionsknown to those skilled in the art in view of the teachings disclosedherein to permit the expression of interferon polypeptide.

Many microbial expression systems are known, including systemsemploying: bacteria (e.g. E. coli and B. subtilis) transformed with, forexample, recombinant bacteriophage, plasmid or cosmid DNA expressionvectors; yeasts (e.g. Saccharomyces cerevisiae) transformed with, forexample, yeast expression vectors; insect cell systems transformed with,for example, viral expression vectors (e.g. baculovirus).

The vectors can include a prokaryotic replicon, such as the Col E1 ori,for propagation in a prokaryote. The vectors can also include anappropriate promoter such as a prokaryotic promoter capable of directingthe expression (transcription) of the genes in a bacterial host cell,such as E. coli, transformed therewith, and a translation initiationsequence, such as the Shine-Dalgarno consensus ribosome-bindingsequence, usually adjacent to the promoter sequence, that forms part ofthe resulting transcript and from which translation of the cloned genetranscript can commence.

A promoter is an expression control element formed by a DNA sequencethat permits binding of RNA polymerase and transcription to occur.Promoter sequences compatible with exemplary bacterial hosts aretypically provided in plasmid vectors containing convenient restrictionsites for insertion of a DNA segment of the present invention.

Typical prokaryotic vector plasmids are: pUC18, pUC19, pBR322 and pBR329available from Biorad Laboratories (Richmond, Calif., USA); pTrc99A,pKK223-3, pKK233-3, pDR540 and pRIT5 available from Pharmacia(Piscataway, N.J., USA); pBS vectors, Phagescript vectors, Bluescriptvectors, pNH8A, pNH 16A, pNH 18A, pNH46A available from StratageneCloning Systems (La Jolla, Calif. 92037, USA). Preferred prokaryoticvector plasmids include pET26b (Novagen, Nottingham, UK).

Useful yeast plasmid vectors are pRS403-406 and pRS413-416 and aregenerally available from Stratagene Cloning Systems (La Jolla, Calif.92037, USA). Plasmids pRS403, pRS404, pRS405 and pRS406 are YeastIntegrating plasmids (YIps) and incorporate the yeast selectable markersHIS3, TRP1, LEU2 and URA3. Plasmids pRS413-416 are Yeast Centromereplasmids (YCps).

Methods well known to those skilled in the art can be used to constructexpression vectors containing the coding sequence and, for exampleappropriate transcriptional or translational controls. One such methodinvolves ligation via homopolymer tails. Homopolymer polydA (or polydC)tails are added to exposed 3′ OH groups on the DNA fragment to be clonedby terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferases. The fragment is then capableof annealing to the polydT (or polydG) tails added to the ends of alinearised plasmid vector. Gaps left following annealing can be filledby DNA polymerase and the free ends joined by DNA ligase.

Another method involves ligation via cohesive ends. Compatible cohesiveends can be generated on the DNA fragment and vector by the action ofsuitable restriction enzymes. These ends will rapidly anneal throughcomplementary base pairing and remaining nicks can be closed by theaction of DNA ligase.

A further method uses synthetic molecules called linkers and adaptors.DNA fragments with blunt ends are generated by bacteriophage T4 DNApolymerase or E. coli DNA polymerase I which remove protruding 3′termini and fill in recessed 3′ ends. Synthetic linkers, pieces ofblunt-ended double-stranded DNA which contain recognition sequences fordefined restriction enzymes, can be ligated to blunt-ended DNA fragmentsby T4 DNA ligase. They are subsequently digested with appropriaterestriction enzymes to create cohesive ends and ligated to an expressionvector with compatible termini. Adaptors are also chemically synthesisedDNA fragments which contain one blunt end used for ligation but whichalso possess one preformed cohesive end.

Synthetic linkers containing a variety of restriction endonuclease sitesare commercially available from a number of sources includingInternational Biotechnologies Inc, New Haven, Conn., USA.

A desirable way to modify DNA encoding the IFNλ polypeptide is to usethe polymerase chain reaction as disclosed by Saiki et al. (1988)Science 249, 487-491. In this method the DNA to be enzymaticallyamplified is flanked by two specific oligonucleotide primers whichthemselves become incorporated into the amplified DNA. The said specificprimers may contain restriction endonuclease recognition sites which canbe used for cloning into expression vectors using methods known in theart.

Accordingly, the procedures outlined above can be used to prepare amicrobial expression system for the preparation of IFNλ polypeptide.

The IFNλ polypeptide can be recovered from microbial expression systemsusing a number of different well known methods, including ammoniumsulphate or ethanol precipitation, acid extraction, anion or cationexchange chromatography, phosphocellulose chromatography, hydrophobicinteraction chromatography, affinity chromatography, hydroxylapatitechromatography, lectin chromatography, dye-ligand chromatography andreverse phase high performance liquid chromatography (“HPLC”).

Such methods may include the step of lysing the microbial host cells(unless the expression system directed the IFNλ polypeptide to besecreted from the cell).

Alternatively, IFN-λ polypeptides may be synthesised by theFmoc-polyamide mode of solid-phase peptide synthesis as disclosed by Luet al. (1981) J. Org. Chem. 46, 3433 and references therein. TemporaryN-amino group protection is afforded by the 9-fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl(Fmoc) group. Repetitive cleavage of this highly base-labile protectinggroup is effected using 20% piperidine in N,N-dimethylformamide.Side-chain functionalities may be protected as their butyl ethers (inthe case of serine threonine and tyrosine), butyl esters (in the case ofglutamic acid and aspartic acid), butyloxycarbonyl derivative (in thecase of lysine and histidine), trityl derivative (in the case ofcysteine) and 4-methoxy-2,3,6-trimethylbenzenesulphonyl derivative (inthe case of arginine). Where glutamine or asparagine are C-terminalresidues, use is made of the 4,4′-dimethoxybenzhydryl group forprotection of the side chain amido functionalities. The solid-phasesupport is based on a polydimethyl-acrylamide polymer constituted fromthe three monomers dimethylacrylamide (backbone-monomer),bisacryloylethylene diamine (cross linker) and acryloylsarcosine methylester (functionalising agent). The peptide-to-resin cleavable linkedagent used is the acid-labile 4-hydroxymethyl-phenoxyacetic acidderivative. All amino acid derivatives are added as their preformedsymmetrical anhydride derivatives with the exception of asparagine andglutamine, which are added using a reversedN,N-dicyclohexyl-carbodiimide/1-hydroxybenzotriazole mediated couplingprocedure. All coupling and deprotection reactions are monitored usingninhydrin, trinitrobenzene sulphonic acid or isotin test procedures.Upon completion of synthesis, peptides are cleaved from the resinsupport with concomitant removal of side-chain protecting groups bytreatment with 95% trifluoroacetic acid containing a 50% scavenger mix.Scavengers commonly used are ethanedithiol, phenol, anisole and water,the exact choice depending on the constituent amino acids of the peptidebeing synthesised. Trifluoroacetic acid is removed by evaporation invacuo, with subsequent trituration with diethyl ether affording thecrude peptide. Any scavengers present are removed by a simple extractionprocedure which on lyophilisation of the aqueous phase affords the crudepeptide free of scavengers. Reagents for peptide synthesis are generallyavailable from Calbiochem-Novabiochem (UK) Ltd, Nottingham NG7 2QJ, UK.Purification may be effected by any one, or a combination of, techniquessuch as size exclusion chromatography, ion-exchange chromatography and(principally) reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography.Analysis of peptides may be carried out using thin layer chromatography,reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography, amino-acidanalysis after acid hydrolysis and by fast atom bombardment (FAB) massspectrometric analysis.

As indicated above, one or more IFN-λ polypeptides may be administereddirectly or via expression from one or more polynucleotides. Such apolynucleotide may preferably be in the form of a vector capable ofdirecting expression of the IFN-λ(s) in the bronchial epithelium. Suchexpression vectors may be any type conventionally considered for genetherapy. They may be plasmid expression vectors administered as nakedDNA or complexed with one or more cationic amphiphiles, e.g. one or morecationic lipids, e.g. in the form of DNA/liposomes. A viral vector mayalternatively be employed. Vectors for expression of therapeuticproteins in the airways of human lung have previously been described.For example, Published International Application WO 01/91800 (Isisinnovation Limited) describes for such purpose expression vectorsincluding the human ubiquitin C promoter. Examples of expression vectorsfor use in directing transgene expression in airway epithelia have alsobeen described in Chow et al., Proc, Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1997) 94,14695-14700.

IFN-λ polypeptides may be formulated together with one or moreacceptable carriers to provide a pharmaceutical composition fortherapeutic use. The carrier(s) must be “acceptable” in the sense ofbeing compatible with the compound and not deleterious to the recipientsthereof. Such carriers are well known in the pharmaceutical art. For thepurpose of treatment of a viral-induced exacerbation of a respiratorydisorder in accordance with the invention, it is particularly preferredthat the IFNλ polypeptide is formulated for airway administration.

For such administration, the IFNλ polypeptide is conveniently deliveredin the form of an aerosol spray presentation from a pressurizedcontainer, pump, spray or nebulizer with the use of a suitablepropellant, e.g. dichlorodifluoromethane, trichlorofluoromethane,dichlorotetrafluoro-ethane, a hydrofluoroalkane such as1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (HFA 134A3 or 1,1,1,2,3,3,3-heptafluoropropane(HFA 227EA3), carbon dioxide or other suitable gas. In the case of apressurized aerosol, the dosage unit may be determined by providing avalve to deliver a metered amount. The pressurized container, pump,spray or nebulizer may contain a solution or suspension of the activecompound (s), e.g. using a mixture of ethanol and the propellant as thesolvent, which may additionally contain a lubricant, e.g. sorbitantrioleate. The formulation may also be delivered using ultrasonicnebulization techniques.

Thus, as indicated above, in a further aspect the invention provides adevice containing a pharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeuticagent which is (i) one or more IFN-λ polypeptides or (ii) one or morepolynucleotides capable of expressing one or more IFN-λ polypeptides asdiscussed above and suitable for airway delivery of said composition.Such a composition may be supplemented with an additional therapeuticagent used to treat the respiratory disorder for simultaneous, separateor sequential administration. Thus, the additional therapeutic agent maybe formulated to provide a single composition or provided in a separatecomposition. Products suitable for such administration regimesconstitute a still further aspect of the invention.

Thus reference has previously been made above to a product for treatmentof viral-induced exacerbation of asthma comprising for simultaneous,separate or sequential administration (a) at least one IFN-λ polypeptideor a polynucleotide capable of expressing at least one IFN-λ polypeptidein the bronchial epithelial cells to be targeted and (b) an inhaledcorticosteroid, such as, for example, fluticasone, beclomethasone andbudesonide. Such a product may be in the form of a single pharmaceuticalcomposition suitable for aerosol delivery to the airways.

It will be appreciated that the overall daily dose with an aerosol willvary from patient to patient, and may be administered in a single doseor in divided doses throughout the day.

An IFNλ polypeptide to be administered for a method of the invention maybe derivatised to improve the pharmacokinetic or immunogenic propertiesof the polypeptide. For example, an IFN-λ polypeptide may be PEGylatedand/or conjugated to albumin or a further substance so as to increasestability of the IFN-λ polypeptide.

PEGylation is a method well known to those skilled in the art wherein apolypeptide or peptidomimetic compound is modified such that one or morepolyethylene glycol (PEG) molecules are covalently attached to the sidechain of one or more amino acids or derivatives thereof. It is one ofthe most important molecule altering structural chemistry techniques(MASC). Other MASC techniques may be used; such techniques may improvethe pharmacodynamic properties of the molecule, for example extendingits half life in vivo. A PEG-protein conjugate is formed by firstactivating the PEG moiety so that it will react with, and couple to, theprotein or peptidomimetic compound of the invention. PEG moieties varyconsiderably in molecular weight and conformation, with the earlymoieties (monofunctional PEGs; mPEGs) being linear with molecularweights of 12 kDa or less, and later moieties being of increasedmolecular weights. PEG2, a recent innovation in PEG technology, involvesthe coupling of a 30 kDa (or less) mPEG to a lysine amino acid (althoughPEGylation can be extended to the addition of PEG to other amino acids)that is further reacted to form a branched structure that behaves like alinear mPEG of much greater molecular weight (Kozlowski et al., (2001),Biodrugs 15, 419-429). Methods that may be used to covalently attach thePEG molecules to the polypeptide or peptidomimetic compound of theinvention are further described in Roberts et al., (2002) Adv. DrugDeliv Rev 54, 459-476, Bhadra et al., (2002) Pharmazie 57, 5-29,Kozlowski et al., (2001) J Control Release 72, 217-224, and Veronese(2001) Biomaterials, 22, 405-417 and references referred to therein.

To improve pharmokinetic properties and/or stability, it mayadditionally or alternatively be chosen to replace naturally-occurringamino acid residues of a natural IFN-λ polypeptide bynon-naturally-occurring amino acid residues.

Therapeutic proteins such as interferons and growth hormones, in theirnative state or when recombinantly produced, can be labile moleculesexhibiting short shelf-lives, particularly when formulated in aqueoussolutions. The instability in these molecules when formulated foradministration dictates that the molecules may have to be lyophilizedand refrigerated at all times during storage, thereby rendering themolecules difficult to transport and/or store. Storage problems areparticularly acute when pharmaceutical formulations must be stored anddispensed outside of the hospital environment. Many protein and peptidedrugs also require the addition of high concentrations of other proteinsuch as albumin to reduce or prevent loss of protein due to binding tothe container. This is a major concern with respect to proteins, such asinterferons.

The role of albumin as a carrier molecule and its inert nature aredesirable properties for use as a carrier and transporter ofpolypeptides in vivo. Fusion of albumin to the therapeutic protein maybe achieved by genetic manipulation, such that the DNA coding foralbumin, or a fragment thereof, is joined to the DNA coding for thetherapeutic protein. A suitable host is then transformed or transfectedwith the fused nucleotide sequences, so arranged on a suitable plasmidas to express a fusion polypeptide. The expression may be effected invitro from, for example, prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells, or in vivoe.g. from a transgenic organism.

The invention may be employed for prophylactic or therapeutic purpose. Aperson could be considered to be at seasonal risk of developing arespiratory viral infection. Thus in the winter there is excess ofrhinovirus infections and clear winter epidemics of influenza and RSV. Aperson with asthma or COPD could be expected to develop symptoms ofviral exacerbation upon exposure to a person who has a clear clinicalcold. In this case, one or more IFN-λ polypeptides may be administeredin accordance with the invention after such exposure to prevent or atleast reduce development of viral-exacerbation of the respiratorydisorder.

The invention will be understood to be applicable to any viral infectioncausing viral induced exacerbation of a respiratory disorder associatedwith deficient IFN-λ production in the bronchial epithelium or forpreventing such exacerbation. The viral infection may be infection by,for example, any of rhinovirus, RSV or influenza virus. The viralinfection may be caused by further respiratory viruses. The invention isparticularly preferred for use, however, in treating or preventingrhinovirus-induced exacerbation of a respiratory disorder, especiallyrhinovirus-induced exacerbation of asthma.

As discussed above, it is now additionally suggested that interferon-λsmay be beneficial in the prevention of an allergic disorder such asasthma, independent of their role against virus infections. The data wehave generated suggests that administering interferon-λs early in lifewould mimic the protective effect of infectious disease, promote TH1immune responses, and prevent the development of TH2 driven allergicsensitization and allergic disorder. This preventive therapy could beadministered early in life, but interferon-λs could also be administeredlater in life to treat/cure allergic disorder, in other words to reversethe TH2 driven sensitization and immune responses to allergens.

“Allergic disorder” is a condition associated with a T helperlymphocyte-2 (Th-2) type immune response. In an allergic reaction, highIgE levels occur and Th-2 immune responses predominate over Th-1responses, resulting in an inflammatory response.

By “allergic disorder” we include allergic sensitization, allergicrhinitis, eczema, food allergies, anaphylaxis, dermatitis, allergicrhinitis, allergic conjunctivitis, allergic airways disease,hyper-eosinophilic syndrome, contact dermatitis and respiratory diseasescharacterised by eosinophilic airways inflammation and airwayhyperresponsiveness such as allergic asthma, intrinsic asthma, allergicbronchopulmonary aspergillosis, eosinophilic pneumonia, allergicbronchitis bronchiectasis, occupational asthma, reactive airway diseasesyndrome, interstitial lung disease, hyperosinophilic syndrome orparasitic lung disease. In one embodiment of this aspect of theinvention the allergic disease is allergic sensitization, allergicrhinitis, eczema, food allergies, anaphylaxis, dermatitis, allergicrhinitis, allergic conjunctivitis, hyper-eosinophilic syndrome orcontact dermatitis.

A further embodiment of this aspect of this invention is wherein therespiratory disorder is asthma (allergic or intrinsic), chronicobstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), allergic bronchopulmonaryaspergillosis, eosinophilic pneumonia, allergic bronchitisbronchiectasis, occupational asthma, reactive airway disease syndrome,interstitial lung disease, hyperosinophilic syndrome or parasitic lungdisease. Preferably the respiratory disorder is asthma and/or COPD.

A further aspect of the invention is the use of IFNλ polypeptide in themanufacture of a medicament for the prevention or treatment of anallergic disorder.

Preferably, the allergic disorder is an allergic sensitization, asthma,allergic rhinitis, eczema, food allergies, anaphylaxis, allergicrhinitis, eczema, food allergies, anaphylaxis, dermatitis, allergicrhinitis, allergic conjunctivitis, allergic airways disease,hyper-eosinophilic syndrome, contact dermatitis and respiratory diseasescharacterised by eosinophilic airways inflammation and airwayhyperresponsiveness such as allergic asthma, intrinsic asthma, allergicbronchopulmonary aspergillosis, eosinophilic pneumonia, allergicbronchitis bronchiectasis, occupational asthma, reactive airway diseasesyndrome, interstitial lung disease, hyperosinophilic syndrome orparasitic lung disease.

The following examples are provided to illustrate the invention.

EXAMPLE 1 Study of Bronchial Epithelial Cells from Asthma Patients

Subjects

All subjects were non-smokers, with no exacerbation of their lungdisease or history of respiratory tract infection in the preceding 4weeks. Allergy skin tests using a panel of common aero-allergensincluding house dust mite extract, grass pollen, tree pollen, catdander, dog dander, Candidia, Aspergillus as well as negative (saline)and positive controls (histamine) controls. Tests were consideredpositive if there was a wheal response of 3 mm or greater than thenegative control. Lung function was assessed by spirometry, measuringforced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV₁) and forced vital capacity(FVC). Bronchial hyper responsiveness was then assessed by histaminechallenge, defined by a PC₂₀ histamine less than 8 mg/ml. Subjects withasthma were subdivided on a basis of clinical severity in accordancewith the GINA guidelines (National, H., Lung and Blood Institute. Globalstrategy for asthma management and prevention 96-3659a, Bethseda, 1995).

Asthma was diagnosed on a consistent history with evidence of bronchialhyper responsiveness, defined by a PC₂₀ histamine less than 8 mg/ml.Asthmatic subjects were classed as mild, with stable symptoms requiringtreatment with salbutamol only as needed, less than 3 times per week andwith moderate disease, with stable symptoms on inhaled beclomethasone ofless than 1500 μg per day. Healthy controls had no previous history oflung disease, normal lung function, no evidence of bronchial hyperresponsiveness on histamine challenge and were non-atopic. The study wasapproved by the relevant ethics committees. All subjects gave writteninformed consent.

Table 2 outlines the characteristics of the subjects used in thestudies. FEV₁% predicted refers to the forced expiratory volume in 1second expressed as a percentage of the predicted value. ICS refers toinhaled corticosteroids. Dose is expressed in dose of beclomethasone(BDP) in μg per day where 1 μg BDP=1 μg Budesonide or 0.5 μgFluticasone.

TABLE 2 Subjects used in the studies Asthma Healthy controls P valuesNumber 14  10  NA Sex (% male) 69% 60% P = 0.6 Mean age (range) 32(21-58) 29 (24-38) P = 0.4 Mean FEV₁ % 77.3 (15.5) 110.3 (13.6) P <0.001 predicted (sd) Mean dose of ICS, 490 (260) 0 NA BDP μg/day (sd)

Tissue Culture

Epithelial cells were obtained by fibreoptic bronchoscopy in accordancewith standard published guidelines, all subjects were premedicated withsalbutamol (Hurd, J Allergy Clin Immunol, 1991; 88: 808-814) and cellculture was performed as previously described (Bucchieri, et al., Am. J.Respir. Cell Mol. Biol., 2001; 27: 179-185). In brief cells wereobtained using a sheathed nylon cytology brush by taking 5-10 brushingsfrom second to third generation bronchi under direct vision. Primarycultures were established by seeding freshly brushed bronchialepithelial cells into culture dishes. Cells were cultured at 37° C. and5% carbon dioxide in hormonally supplemented bronchial epithelial growthmedium (BEGM; Clonetics, San Diego, USA) containing 50 U/ml penicillinand 50 μg/ml streptomycin. Cells were cultured and passaged into tissueculture flasks using trypsin. At passage 2 cells were seeded onto 12well trays and cultured until 80% confluent (Bucchieri, et al., Am JRespir Cell Mol Biol, 2001; 27: 179-185). Epithelial cell purity waschecked by differential cell counts on cytospins of the harvested cells.

Cells were also treated alone or following infection with the majorgroup RV-16. After infection cells were also treated with the caspase 3inhibitor ZVD-fmk at 120 μM (Calbiochem, La Jolla, Calif., USA) andhuman IFNβ at 100 IU (Sigma Chemical St Louis Mo., USA).

Preparation and Infection with RV

We generated RV-16 stocks by infecting cultures of Ohio HeLa cells aspreviously described (Papi and Johnston, J Biol Chem, 1999; 274:9707-9720); cells and supernatants were harvested, cells were disruptedby freezing and thawing, cell debris was pelleted by low speedcentrifugation and the clarified supernatant frozen at −70° C.

RV titration was performed by exposing confluent monolayers of HeLacells in 96-well plates to serial 10-fold dilutions of viral stock andcultured for 5 days at 37° C. in 5% CO₂. Cytopathic effect was assessedand the tissue culture infective dose of 50% (TCID₅₀/ml) was thendetermined and the multiplicity of infection (MOI) derived (Papi andJohnston, J Biol Chem, 1999; 274: 9707-9720). As a negative control forall experiments RV-16 was inactivated by exposure to UV irradiation at1200 μJ/cm² UV light for 30 minutes. Inactivation was confirmed byrepeating viral titrations in HeLa cells.

The desired concentration of RV-16 was applied to cells that were gentlyshaken at 150 rpm at room temperature for 1 hour. The medium was thenremoved and the wells washed twice with 1 ml Hanks Balanced SaltSolution. Fresh medium was then applied and the cells cultured at 37.5°C. and 5% CO₂ for the desired time. As negative controls cells weretreated with medium alone and UV inactivated RV-16.

Confirmation of infection of epithelial cells and quantification ofviral production was assessed by HeLa titration assay (Papi andJohnston, J Biol Chem, 1999; 274: 9707-9720) and quantitative reversetranscription polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), as described below.

Analysis of Cell Viability

Viability and apoptosis were assessed by flow cytometry as previouslydescribed (Puddicombe et al., Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 2003; 28:61-68). Briefly 8 h after RV infection, adherent cells were removed withtrypsin and added to non-adherent cells. Cells were stained withAnnexin-V conjugated to the flurochrome Phycoerythrin (PE) and the vitaldye 7-Amino-actinomycin (7-AAD). Flow cytometric data were analysedusing WinMDI 2.8. The active forms of caspase 3/7 were detected usingthe Apo-One Homogenous Caspase 3/7 assay (Promega, Maddison, USA). Cellswere plated in quadruplicate for each condition. Two wells were stainedwith methylene blue and cell biomass estimated. The other two wells werelysed with lysis buffer and read on a fluorescent plate reader with anexcitation wavelength of 485 nm and emmission of 530. Caspase activitywas then corrected for cell biomass. Cell lysis was measured bydetermining the activity of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in the cellsupernatant that had been removed and stored at room temperature for nolonger than 48 hours. The LDH activity was measured at 37° C. by anenzymatic rate method, using pyruvate as a substrate (Sigma, St LouisUSA).

Reverse Transcription Quantitative PCR

Analysis of gene expression for IL-8, TNFα, ICAM-1, IFNβ and RV wascarried out using RNA extracted from BECs using TRIzol reagent (LifeTechnologies, Paisley, UK); contaminating DNA was removed bydeoxyribonuclease digestion on RNeasy Mini Kits (Qiagen, Crawley, WestSussex, UK) in accordance with manufacturer's instructions. Total RNA (1μg) was reverse transcribed using random hexamers or oligo (dT)₁₅primers and avian myeloblastosis virus transcriptase from the ReverseTranscription System (Promega, Southampton, UK), following themanufacturer's protocol. Fluorogenic probes were labelled with the5′-reporter dye 6-carboxy-fluorescein (FAM) and the 3′-quencher dye6-carboxy-N,N, N′,N′-tetramethyl-rhodamine (TAMRA).

Housekeeping gene primers and probe for 18S ribosomal RNA was obtainedfrom Eurogentech (Eurogentech, Southampton, UK). No-template controlsand reverse transcription-negative samples were also included ascontrols. The icycler PCR protocol was as follows: 95° C. for 8 min;followed by 42 cycles of denaturation at 95° C. for 15 seconds followedby annealing at 60° C. for 1 min and extension at 72° C. for 15 seconds.Quantitation and real-time detection of the PCR were followed on the onicycler sequence detection system, and after completion of the PCR, thethresholds for fluorescence emission baseline were set just abovebackground levels on the FAM and VIC layers (˜15 to 20 cycles). Standardcurves were calculated from the delta CT and were constructed for targetgenes and the 18S rRNA endogenous control, and the amount of target andendogenous control were calculated. The data were normalized by usingthe ratio of the amount of target gene relative to endogenous control.Comparisons were made after 8 hours of infection, as this was the timeof maximum mRNA induction for IL-8.

Quantification of RV-16 differed from above. The primers used to detectRV were 0.05 μM Picornavirus Forward Oligo (5′-GTG AAG AGC CCGC AGTG TGCT-3) (SEQ ID NO: 9) and 0.30 μM Picornavirus Reverse Oligo (5-GCT CGCAGGG TTA AGG TTA GCC-3) (SEQ ID NO: 10. A standard curve was constructedto quantify RV using the OL-26-OL-27 amplicon (product of OL-26 andOL-27 primers cloned into PCR 2.1 TOPO (Invitrogen). The plasmid wasgrown in E. coli strain XL-1blue (Stratagene), purified by a maxiprepmethod using commercially available reagents (Qiagen), resuspended inTris EDTA buffer pH 8.0 at 1 ug/uL and stored at −80 C.

Expression of ICAM-1

ICAM-1 expression on cells were measured at baseline, immediately afterinfection and up to 24 h after RV infection by flow cytometry asdescribed above using a monoclonal antibody to ICAM-1 (eBioscienceanti-human CD54) and a FITC labelled secondary (Dako, Denmark).

Measurement of Inflammatory Mediators by ELISA

Release of Interleukin (IL)-8 and Tumour Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-β)(R&D systems, Abingdon, UK) and Interferon-beta (IFN-β) (BiosourceNivelles Belgium) into culture supernatants was measured usingenzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) according to themanufacturer's instructions

Statistical Analysis

Data was analysed using SPSS version 10.1 (SPSS Inc). As sample size wassmall and variables were not normally distributed the differencesbetween the groups have been analysed using non-parametric tests;differences between two dependent variables was analysed using thesigned rank test, independent variables the Wilcoxon rank sum test andmultiple comparisons the Kruskal Wallis test. A p value of <0.05 wasconsidered significant.

Results

To compare responses of normal and asthmatic bronchial epithelial cells(BECs), primary cultures were grown from bronchial brushings obtained byfibreoptic bronchoscopy from clinically characterised volunteers. Doseand time courses for infection of BECs with RV-16 were optimisedinitially by measuring release of IL-8 in culture supernatants obtainedfrom infected cells. From these experiments, a dose of RV-16 with anestimated MOI of 2 was selected for detailed study (data not shown).

Inflammatory Response of Normal and Asthmatic BECs to RV-16 Infection

To investigate differences between normal and asthmatic bronchialepithelial cells, we recruited 14 subjects with asthma and 10 normalhealthy controls (see Table 2) to undertake fibreoptic bronchoscopy. Thetwo subject groups were similar in terms of age and sex. All asthmaticshad mild-moderate persistent symptoms and used inhaled corticosteroidsregularly. The responses of the primary BEC cultures to RV-16 infectionwere compared first by measuring induction of IL-8 and TNFα mRNAexpression and protein release (FIGS. 1 a,c). BECs from either asthmaticor healthy controls showed a significant induction of IL-8 and TNFα mRNA8 h post RV infection and there was a significant increase in IL-8 andTNFα protein release 48 h post infection (FIG. 1 b,d); there were nosignificant differences between the two groups. UV-inactivated RV didnot trigger a proinflammatory response.

As cells were treated with a major group RV, susceptibility to infectionwould be expected to be dependent on expression of ICAM-1, the receptorfor major group RV. To determine whether this differed between asthmaticand normal cells, ICAM levels were evaluated by flow cytometry. Prior toinfection ICAM-1 expression was not significantly different in eithergroup (FIG. 1 e). By 24 h following infection, expression was similar inboth groups (FIG. 1 f).

Infection Viral Yields and Cell Lysis from Primary Bronchial EpithelialCells

Following RV-16 infection of BEC cultures, recovery of viable RV wasdetermined by transmission of infection and cytopathic effect (CPE) onOhio HeLa cells from the infected supernatant of BECs. CPE was not seenusing supernatants obtained up to 8 h after infection but after thatvirion yield following infection of the primary cultures, but thereafterrose steadily up to 48 h. In contrast with the proinflammatoryresponses, asthmatic BECs had a significantly greater increase in RV-16detected by 24 h and 48 h as measured by TCID₅₀ (FIG. 2 a). There wasalso a greater yield of RV-16 mRNA 8 h post infection in asthma comparedto healthy controls (FIG. 2 b). Given the equivalent levels of ICAM-1expression this suggests that factors other than immediatesusceptibility to infection were influencing viral yield from infectedcells.

In parallel with the release of virus, there was a progressive increasein cell lysis, as measured by LDH activity, mirroring the increase in RVyield; by 48 h, this was significantly greater in asthmatic cells (FIG.2 c). Although there was no significant increase in LDH activity incells treated with SFM alone at 48 h, there was a small but significantincrease in cells treated with UV inactivated RV-16 (data not shown),however this was small by comparison with that seen in active viruscultures. These results pointed to a link between viral yield and celllysis and led to investigation of whether early changes in cellviability would predict viral yield.

BEC Viability Following RV-16 Infection

As apoptosis is a natural defence that protects cells against virusreplication, we characterised the nature of cell death in response toRV-16 using Annexin-V (AxV) and the nuclear stain, 7-aminoactinomycin D(7AAD), to discriminate phosphatidyl serine which has been externalisedon the outer leaflet of apoptotic cells. Flow cytometric analysisrevealed that there was a significant reduction in viable (ie.AxV⁻/7AAD⁻) cell number 8 h following RV-16 infection of normal BECs.This was not seen in cells treated with medium alone or UV inactivatedRV-16 suggesting a direct link between infection and cell death (FIG. 3a). In contrast, infection of asthmatic BECs with RV-16 had a smallereffect on viability at 8 h (FIG. 3 a). By comparing AxV+/7AAD− cells(ie. apoptotic cells) and AxV+/7AAD+ cells (ie. necrotic cells), thedifference in overall viability between normal and asthmatic BECs wasfound to be due to a significant increase in apoptosis in the normalcultures (FIG. 3 b). The induction of apoptosis in infected cells wasconfirmed by demonstrating altered mitochondrial membrane permeabilityusing the ApoAlert Mitochondrial Membrane sensor (Clontech, Palo AltoCalif., USA) (data not shown) and by measuring activation of activecaspase 3/7. In the latter case, there was significantly less activecaspase in asthmatic BECs infected with RV-16 than normal BECs (FIG. 4a).

Effects of Inhibition of Apoptosis and RV-16 Production

As increased virion production by asthmatic BECs was associated withtheir ability to by-pass apoptosis, we investigated whether suppressionof apoptosis in RV-16 infected normal BECs was sufficient to facilitatevirion production. Thus, BECs were treated with the caspase 3 inhibitor(C3I), ZVD-fmk, before and following infection with RV-16. The inhibitorled to a marked reduction in apoptosis in the healthy control cells buthad minimal effect on asthmatic cells compared to infection alone (FIG.4 b). Treatment of cells from healthy controls with C3I also had adirect impact on RV-16 production, with a significant increase intransmissible infection at 48 h, a similar increase was not seen inasthmatic cells treated with C3I (FIG. 4 c). These data provided adirect link between inhibition of early apoptosis and increased viralyield.

Evaluation of the Innate Anti-Viral Response of Asthmatic EpithelialCells

To investigate the underlying mechanism linked to the abnormalanti-viral response by asthmatic BECs, we analysed expression of thetype I interferon (IFN), IFN-β, which has been implicated as keyregulator of apoptosis in response to virus infection (Samuel, ClinMicrobiol Rev, 2001; 14: 778-809; Takaoka et al., Nature, 2003; 424:516-523). As observed with the proinflammatory cytokines, there was asignificant increase in IFN-β mRNA expression by normal BECs 8 h postRV-16 infection, however a similar increase was not seen in asthmaticcells (FIG. 5 a); there was also less IFN-β production by asthmaticcells 48 h post RV-16 infection (FIG. 5 b). To confirm that thisdifference in IFN-β production was functionally relevant, we tested theability of exogenous IFN-β to induce apoptosis in RV-16 infectedasthmatic BECs. FIG. 5 c shows that pre-treatment of cells with IFN-β(100 IU) with RV-16 caused a doubling in the number of apoptotic cells.IFN-β alone had no significant effect on the apoptotic index, but causeda marked induction of apoptosis in response to exposure to syntheticpoly(I):poly(C), indicating a requirement for other signals involvingrecognition of double stranded RNA for commitment to apoptosis inresponse to IFN-β. In line with its ability to induce apoptosis ofvirally infected asthmatic BEC, IFN-β caused a significant reduction inRV-16 infectious virion production (FIG. 5 d).

These results provide for the first time explanation for the tendency ofasthmatic subjects to have lingering lower respiratory tract problems asa consequence of RV infection. Thus, regardless of asthmatic state,spread of RV from the upper to the lower respiratory tract can result ininfection of bronchial epithelial cells and induction of an acuteinflammatory response. While further infection is limited innon-asthmatic subjects by an innate antiviral response and induction ofapoptosis in infected cells, a deficiency of IFN-β in asthma facilitatesvirion replication and cytolysis with adverse outcomes. These includeincreased risk of infection of neighbouring cells and an exaggeratedinflammatory response in response to the cytolytic effects of the virus.Crucially, this defect can be restored in vitro by provision ofexogeneous IFN-β, which can provide a brake on viral replication andminimise the self-perpetuating cycle of infection and inflammation. Itfollows that IFN-β, or agents that induce IFN-β, can be expected to havetherapeutic utility during a virally-induced exacerbation of asthma.

EXAMPLE 2 Study of Bronchial Epithelial Cells from COPD Patients

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is another example of aninflammatory airways disease in which the common cold virus causesexacerbations (Seemungal T A, Harper-Owen R, Bhowmik A, Jeffries D J,Wedzicha J A. Detection of rhinovirus in induced sputum at exacerbationof chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J. (2000) 16,677-83) with those affected frequently requiring hospitalization (MacNeeW. Acute exacerbations of COPD. Swiss Med Wkly. (2003) May 3; 133(17-18):247-57). Based on the finding that bronchial epithelial cellsfrom asthmatic subjects have a defective Type I interferon response, itwas postulated that a similar deficiency in COPD could also explain theseverity of lower respiratory tract symptoms in this group of patients.To investigate this possibility, archival samples of cultured bronchialepithelial cells were tested for their response to RV-16 infection.These cells were grown from bronchial brushings harvested from twosubjects with COPD (one male and one female, ages 61 and 57) and an agematched control without COPD (male, aged 64). The brushings werecultured as described for the asthma studies, except that at passage 0the cells were cryopreserved at −170 to −180° C. in BEGM mediumcontaining 10% DMSO as a cryoprotective agent. Cryopreservation isroutinely used for long-term storage of cell cultures.

When required for experimentation, the frozen cell cultures were rapidlythawed into 1 ml of prewarmed BEGM and then reseeded into culture flaskscontaining fresh medium to allow expansion to passage 2, as for thecultures of bronchial epithelial cells from normal and asthmaticsubjects described in example 1. At passage 2, the cells were seededonto 12 well trays and cultured until 80% confluent. They were thenexposed to RV-16 using the same protocols described above.

To compare the innate immune response of primary BEC cultures from aCOPD and a non-COPD patient, induction of IFN-β mRNA was measured inresponse to infection with RV-16 (2 moi). As shown in FIG. 6, the BECsfrom the non-COPD patient showed a 25-fold induction of IFNβ mRNA 8hours after RV-16 infection whereas the response from the COPD BECs wasless than one-third of this. Consistent with this poor innate immuneresponse, virion production at 24 hours was an order of magnitudegreater in the cells from the COPD subject (FIG. 7).

It was next tested whether exogenous IFN-β could protect BECs from aCOPD patient against virus replication. As shown in FIGS. 8 and 9, cellsfrom a second COPD patient also showed poor induction of IFN-β inresponse to RV-16 infection. However, they were able to respond toexogenous IFN-β with a vigorous induction of IFN-β mRNA. This wasaccompanied by a marked suppression of RV-16 replication, with a onehundred fold reduction in TCID₅₀ which was less than that seen in thecells from the non-COPD volunteer.

These results suggest that, as found in the above-described studies ofBECs from asthmatic subjects, BECs from COPD patients also have a poorinnate immune response. This would help to explain why these patientshave lingering lower respiratory tract problems as a consequence of RVinfection. Based on the fact that IFN-β can induce its own expressionand suppress RV-16 replication, it follows that IFN-β, or agents thatinduce IFN-β, can be expected to have therapeutic utility during avirally-induced exacerbation of COPD, as well as asthma.

EXAMPLE 3 Rhinovirus Induces IFN-λs in Bronchial Epithelial Cells

Aim:

Investigate whether RV induces IFN-λs in vitro and whether IFN-λs induceantiviral activity against RV infection in bronchial epithelial cells.

Outline of Methods:

The human bronchial epithelial cell-line BEAS2B was infected with RV.TaqMan® PCR was used to identify IFN-λs mRNA expression and a bioassaywas employed for corresponding protein production. BEAS2B cells weretreated for 24 h with different doses of IFN-λ1 before infection withRV. Both TaqMan® PCR for viral RNA in cell lysates and viral titrationof the BEAS2B supernatant were performed to investigate the antiviraleffect.

Results:

IFN-λ1, IFN-λ2 and IFN-λ3 mRNA was increased after 4 h (p<0.05) andpeaked at 8 h post-infection (p<0.001). The increase was demonstrated tobe dose-responsive to RV-16 at 24 h post-infection (p<0.001). Infectionwith RV-9 and RV-1B demonstrated that the response was serotype andreceptor independent. UV-inactivation of RV-16 completely inhibited theup-regulation, indicating that active viral replication is required.EMSA assay detected the presence of IFN-λs proteins in the supernatantof BEAS2B 24 h after the infection. Finally both TaqMan® PCR for viralRNA in cell lysates (p<0.001) and viral titration (p<0.001) showed adose-dependent anti-viral effect of IFN-λ1 to RV16 infection.

Conclusions:

This study demonstrated that RV infection of bronchial epithelialcell-line leads to the production of IFN-λs and that these proteins mayplay an important role in the antiviral response to RV.

EXAMPLE 4 Viral Infection in Asthma Exacerbations: Role of InterferonLambda

Aim:

Investigate whether RV16 induces IFN-λs and if this production isassociated with increased susceptibility to rhinovirus infections inasthmatics.

Methods:

The human bronchial epithelial cell-line BEAS2B and bronchial primarycells from asthmatics (6) and normal patients (5) were infected withRV16. TaqMan® PCR for IFN-λ mRNA expression was used. BEAS2B cells weretreated with IFN-λ1 before infection with RV 16. Both TaqMan® PCR forviral RNA in cell lysates and viral titration of the BEAS2B supernatantwere performed to investigate the antiviral effect. TaqMan® PCR forviral RNA in cell lysates of primary cells was used also to test weatherRV 16 infectivity was different between primary cells from asthmaticsand normals.

IFN-λs in increasing susceptibility to rhinovirus infections inasthmatics. Results: IFN-αs mRNA was increased both in BEAS2B and inprimary cells with the peak at 8 h infection. In BEAS2B both TaqMan® PCRfor viral RNA and viral titration showed a dose-dependent anti-viraleffect of IFN-λ1 to RV16 infection. Primary bronchial epithelial cellsproduced significantly lower amount of IFN-λ after RV16 infection(p<0.05) as compared to normal controls. Conversely RV16 replication washigher (p<0.05) in bronchial epithelial cells from asthmatic subjects.

Conclusions:

RV16 infection of bronchial epithelial cells leads to the production ofIFN-αs. This production is deficient in asthmatic subjects and may thusbe a factor in increasing susceptibility to rhinovirus infections inasthmatics.

Further Materials and Methods

Obtaining of Primary Bronchial Epithelial Cells

All subjects were nonsmokers, with no exacerbations or respiratory tractinfections in the preceding 4 wk. Allergy skin tests used a panel ofcommon aeroallergens and were considered positive if the wheal responsewas >3 mm than the negative control. Lung function was assessed byspirometry and bronchial hyperresponsiveness by histamine challenge.Asthma was diagnosed in atopic individuals with a consistent history andevidence of bronchial hyperresponsiveness (defined by a PC20 histamine<8mg/ml) and was categorized in accordance with the GINA guidelines(National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. 1995. Global Strategy forAsthma Management and Prevention. 96-369). Healthy controls had noprevious history of lung disease, normal lung function, no evidence ofbronchial hyperresponsiveness, and were nonatopic. The study wasapproved by the Southampton University Hospital Ethics Committee. Allsubjects gave written informed consent.

Bronchial Epithelial Cell Tissue Culture

Primary BECs were grown from bronchial brushings (>95% epithelialcells), which were obtained by fiber-optic bronchoscopy in accordancewith standard guidelines (Hurd, S. Z. 1991. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.88:808-814); there was no significant difference in the proportion ofcolumnar and basal cells isolated from normal or asthmatic donors. Cellculture and characterization was performed as described previously(Bucchieri, F., J. Lordon, A. Richter, D. Buchanan, R. Djukanovic, S. T.Holgate, and D. E. Davies. 2001. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol.27:179-185; Lordan, J. L., F. Bucchieri, A. Richter, A. Konstantinidis,J. W. Holloway, M. Thornber, S. M. Puddicombe, D. Buchanan, S. J.Wilson, R. Djukanovic, et al. 2002. J. Immunol. 169:407-414). Thecultured cells were all cytokeratin positive and exhibited a basal cellphenotype, as evidenced by the expression of cytokeratin 13,irrespective of the type of donor of the original brushings. Primarycultures were established by seeding freshly brushed BECs intohormonally supplemented bronchial epithelial growth medium (Clonetics)containing 50 U/ml penicillin and 50 μg/ml streptomycin. At passage two,cells were seeded onto 12-well trays and cultured until 80% confluent(Bucchieri et al supra) before exposure to RV-16.

Generation and Titration of RV

RV-16 stocks were generated and titrated from infected cultures of OhioHeLa cells as described previously (Papi, A., and S. L. Johnston. 1999J. Biol. Chem. 274:9707-9720). Cells were infected at a multiplicity ofinfection of 2. Confirmation of infection and quantification of viralproduction was assessed by HeLa titration assay (Papi, A., and S. L.Johnston, supra) and reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chainreaction (RT-qPCR), as described below. As negative controls, cells weretreated with medium alone and UV inactivated RV-16 (Papi, A., and S. L.Johnston, supra).

RT-qPCR and ELISA

RT-qPCR analysis of IFNλ mRNA and RV-16 viral RNA (vRNA) gene expressionwas performed on DNase treated RNA extracted from BECs using TRIzol(Life Technologies). Total RNA (1 μg) was reverse transcribed usingavian myeloblastosis virus transcriptase (Promega) and random hexamersfor IFNλ mRNA and 185 rRNA analysis or oligo (dT)15 for RV-16 vRNA.Real-time detection used an iCyclerIQ detection system using a PCRprotocol as follows: 42 cycles at 95° C. for 15 s, 60° C. for 1 min and72° C. for 15 s. IFNλ signals were normalized to 185 rRNA and relativequantification performed using the ΔΔCT method. Comparisons were made 8h after infection. Quantification of RV-16 was achieved using a TAQmanassay located in the 5 UTR in conjunction with the standard curvemethod. The standard curve was constructed using 10-fold serialdilutions of RV-16 5′ NTR cDNA cloned into PCR 2.1 TOPO (Invitrogen).Relative values for RV detection were calculated by normalizing to thestarting cell number. Probe: FAM/TAMRA 6-FAM-TGAGTCCTCCGGCCCCTGAATG (SEQID NO: 28), forward primer (RVTM-1) 5-GTGAAGAGCCSCRTGTGCT-3 (SEQ ID NO:26), reverse primer (RVTM-2) 5-GCTSCAGGGTTAAGGTTAGCC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 27).

Statistical Analysis

When data were normally distributed the mean and SD have been used,differences between groups have been analyzed using Student's t test,when not normally distributed data were analyzed using nonparametricequivalents and summarized using the median and IQR, multiplecomparisons were first analyzed by the Kruskal Wallis test and then byindividual testing if significant. Correlations were analyzed bySpearman's test. A p-value of <0.05 was considered significant.

Diagnosis of Asthma and COPD

(i) Diagnosing COPD

The following information was taken from a publication titled: “Pocketguide to COPD diagnosis, management and prevention: a guide for heathcare professionals”, which is available from www.goldcopd.com.

A diagnosis of COPD should be considered in any individual who presentscharacteristic symptoms and a history of exposure to risk factors forthe disease, especially cigarette smoking.

Key Indicators for Considering a COPD Diagnosis

-   -   Chronic cough: Present intermittently or every day. Often        present throughout the day; seldom only nocturnal.    -   Chronic sputum production: Any pattern of chronic sputum        production may indicate COPD.    -   Acute bronchitis: Repeated episodes.    -   Dyspnea that is: Progressive (worsens over time). Persistent        (present every day). Worse on exercise. Worse during respiratory        infections.    -   History of exposure to risk factors: Tobacco smoke (including        popular local preparations). Occupational dusts and chemicals.        Smoke from home cooking and heating fuel.

The diagnosis should be confirmed by spirometry. Where spirometry isunavailable, the diagnosis of COPD should be made using all availabletools. Clinical symptoms and signs (abnormal shortness of breath andincreased forced expiratory time) can be used to help with thediagnosis. A low peak flow is consistent with COPD but has poorspecificity since it can be caused by other lung diseases and by poorperformance. In the interest of improving the accuracy of a diagnosis ofCOPD, every effort should be made to provide access to standardizedspirometry.

When performing spirometry, measure:

-   -   Forced Vital Capacity (FVC) and    -   Forced Expiratory Volume in one second (FEV1). Calculate the        FEV1/FVC ratio. Spirometric results are expressed as % Predicted        using appropriate normal values for the person's sex, age, and        height.

Patients with COPD typically show a decrease in both FEV1 and FEV1/FVC.The degree of spirometric abnormality generally reflects the severity ofCOPD. However, both symptoms and spirometry should be considered whendeveloping an individualized management strategy for each patient.

Classification of COPD by Severity

Stage 0: At Risk—Chronic cough and sputum production; lung function isstill normal.

Stage I: Mild COPD—Mild airflow limitation (FEV1/FVC<70% but FEV1≧80%predicted) and usually, but not always, chronic cough and sputumproduction.

-   -   At this stage, the individual may not be aware that his or her        lung function is abnormal.

Stage II: Moderate COPD—Worsening airflow limitation (50%≧FEV1<80%predicted), and usually the progression of symptoms, with shortness ofbreath typically developing on exertion.

Stage III: Severe COPD—Further worsening of airflow limitation(30%<FEV1<50% predicted), increased shortness of breath, and repeatedexacerbations which have an impact on patients' quality of life.

-   -   Exacerbations of symptoms, which have an impact on a patient's        quality of life and prognosis, are especially seen in patients        with FEV1<50% predicted.

Stage IV: Very Severe COPD—Severe airflow limitation (FEV1<30%predicted) or FEV1<50% predicted plus chronic respiratory failure.Patients may have very severe (Stage 1V) COPD even if the FEV1 is >30%predicted, whenever these complications are present.

-   -   At this stage, quality of life is very appreciably impaired and        exacerbations may be life-threatening.

Differential Diagnosis

A major differential diagnosis is asthma. In some patients with chronicasthma, a clear distinction from COPD is not possible using currentimaging and physiological testing techniques. In these patients, currentmanagement is similar to that of asthma. Other potential diagnoses areusually easier to distinguish from COPD:

Below are listed suggestive features that may be used to distinguish anumber of different disorders. These features tend to be characteristicof the respective diseases, but do not occur in every case. For example,a person who has never smoked may develop COPD (especially in thedeveloping world, where other risk factors may be more important thancigarette smoking); asthma may develop in adult and even elderlypatients.

Differential Diagnosis of COPD

COPD: Onset in mid-life. Symptoms slowly progressive.

-   -   Long smoking history.    -   Dyspnea during exercise.    -   Largely irreversible airflow limitation.

Asthma: Onset early in life (often childhood).

-   -   Symptoms vary from day to day.    -   Symptoms at night/early morning.    -   Allergy, rhinitis, and/or eczema also present.    -   Family history of asthma.    -   Largely reversible airflow limitation.

Congestive Heart

Failure: Fine basilar crackles on auscultation.

-   -   Chest X-ray shows dilated heart, pulmonary edema.    -   Pulmonary function tests indicate volume restriction, not        airflow limitation.

Bronchiectasis: Large volumes of purulent sputum.

-   -   Commonly associated with bacterial infection.    -   Coarse crackles/clubbing on auscultation.    -   Chest X-ray/CT shows bronchial dilation, bronchial wall        thickening.

Tuberculosis: Onset all ages.

-   -   Chest X-ray shows lung infiltrate or nodular lesions.    -   Microbiological confirmation.    -   High local prevalence of tuberculosis.

(ii) Diagnosing Asthma

The following information was taken from a publication titled: “Pocketguide for asthma prevention and management”, which is available fromwww.ginasthma.com.

Asthma can often be diagnosed on the basis of symptoms. However,measurements of lung function, and particularly the reversibility oflung function abnormalities, greatly enhance diagnostic confidence.

Is it Asthma?

Consider asthma if any of the following signs or symptoms are present.

-   -   Wheezing-high-pitched whistling sounds when breathing        out-especially in children. (A normal chest examination does not        exclude asthma.)    -   History of any of the following:    -   Cough, worse particularly at night    -   Recurrent wheeze    -   Recurrent difficult breathing    -   Recurrent chest tightness.

(Note: Eczema, hay fever or a family history of asthma or atopicdiseases are often associated with asthma.)

-   -   Symptoms occur or worsen at night, awakening the patient.    -   Symptoms occur or worsen in the presence of: Animals with fur,        Exercise, Aerosol chemicals, Pollen, Changes in temperature,        Respiratory (viral) infections, Domestic dust mites, Smoke,        and/or Drugs (aspirin, beta blockers).

Strong Emotional Expression

-   -   Reversible and variable airflow limitation—as measured by using        a spirometer (FEV1 and FVC) or a peak expiratory flow (PEF)        meter. When using a peak flow meter, consider asthma if:        -   PEF increases more than 15 percent 15 to 20 minutes after            inhalation of a rapid-acting_(—)2-agonist, or        -   PEF varies more than 20 percent from morning measurement            upon arising to measurement 12 hours later in patients            taking a bronchodilator (more than 10 percent in patients            who are not taking a bronchodilator), or        -   PEF decreases more than 15 percent after 6 minutes of            sustained running or exercise.

Peak Flow Meters: Uses and Technique

-   -   Lung function measurements assess airflow limitation and help        diagnose and monitor the course of asthma.    -   To assess the level of airflow limitation, two methods are used.        Peak flow meters measure peak expiratory flow (PEF), and        spirometers measure forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1)        and its accompanying forced vital capacity (FVC). The accuracy        of all lung function measurements depend on patient effort and        correct technique.    -   Several kinds of peak flow meters and spirometers are available,        and the technique for use is similar for all. To use a peak flow        meter:        -   Stand up and hold the peak flow meter without restricting            movement of the marker. Make sure the marker is at the            bottom of the scale.        -   Take a deep breath, put the peak flow meter in your mouth,            seal your lips around the mouthpiece, and breathe out as            hard and fast as possible. Do not put your tongue inside the            mouthpiece.        -   Record the result. Return the marker to zero.        -   Repeat twice more. Choose the highest of the three readings.    -   Daily PEF monitoring for 2 to 3 weeks is useful, when it is        available, for establishing a diagnosis and treatment. If during        2 to 3 weeks a patient cannot achieve 80 percent of predicted        PEF (predicted values are provided with all peak flow meters),        it may be necessary to determine a patient's personal best        value, e.g. by a course of oral glucocorticosteroid.    -   Long-term PEF monitoring is useful, along with review of        symptoms, for evaluating a patient's response to therapy. PEF        monitoring can also help detect early signs of worsening before        symptoms occur.

Note: Examples of available peak flow meters and instructions for use ofinhalers and spacers can be found on www.ginasthma.org.

Diagnostic Challenges Include the Following:

-   -   Young children whose primary symptom is recurrent or persistent        cough or who wheeze with respiratory infections are often        misdiagnosed as having bronchitis or pneumonia (including acute        respiratory infection—ARI) and thus ineffectively treated with        antibiotics or cough suppressants. Treatment with asthma        medication can be beneficial and diagnostic.    -   Many infants and young children who wheeze with viral        respiratory infections may not develop asthma that persists        through childhood. But they may benefit from asthma medications        for their wheezing episodes. There is no certain way to predict        which children will have persistent asthma, but allergy, a        family history of allergy or asthma, and perinatal exposure to        passive smoke and allergens are more strongly associated with        continuing asthma.    -   Asthma should be considered if the patient's colds repeatedly        “go to the chest” or take more than 10 days to clear up, or if        the patient improves when asthma medication is given.    -   Tobacco smokers and elderly patients frequently suffer from        chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) with symptoms        similar to asthma. Yet they may also have asthma and benefit        from treatment. Improvement in PEF after asthma treatment is        diagnostic.    -   Workers who are exposed to inhalant chemicals or allergens in        the workplace can develop asthma and may be misdiagnosed as        having chronic bronchitis or chronic obstructive pulmonary        disease. Early recognition (PEF measurements at work and home),        strict avoidance of further exposure, and early treatment are        essential.    -   Asthma attacks may be difficult to diagnose. For example, acute        shortness of breath, chest tightness and wheezing can also be        caused by croup, bronchitis, heart attacks, and vocal cord        dysfunction. Using spirometry, establishing reversibility of        symptoms with bronchodilators, and assessing the history of the        attack (e.g. whether it was related to exposures that commonly        make asthma worse) aid the diagnosis. A chest x-ray can help        rule out infection, large airway lesions, congestive heart        failure, or aspiration of a foreign object.

EXAMPLE 5 Expression of Alpha-Interferons, Beta-Interferons andLambda-Interferons in Epithelial Cells and PBMCs after Respiratory VirusInfections

In this study, the potential of different cell types such as BEAS-2B,human bronchial epithelial cells (HBEC) and PBMC (as a model formacrophages) to express and produce various type 1 and type IIIinterferons upon respiratory virus infection was investigated. Sets ofprimers and probes were designed for quantitive PCR of various type 1and type III interferons. In BEAS-2B cells induction of IFN-α mRNAexpression was detected by 8 hours from 0-time point, induction of IL-29mRNA from 0-time point was detected by 8-hours with peak at 24 hours andinduction of IFN-β from 0-time point was detected by 24 hours. By ELISAwe also observed production of IL-29 and IFN-β protein by 24 hours. InHBEC induction of IFNA mRNA expression was detected by 8 hours from0-time point and induction of IL-29 mRNA from 0-time point by 24 hours.In PBMC induction of IFNA, IL-29 and IFNB mRNA expression by 8 hoursfrom 0-time point were demonstrated. Induction of IFN-α, IFN-β and IL-29protein by ELISA was additionally shown.

Additional Information on Rhinoviruses

Rhinoviruses are small RNA viruses. They belong to picornaviridaefamily. More than 100 serotypes of rhinoviruses have been identified.According to the type of the receptor for binding rhinoviruses aredivided into two groups. Major group approximately 90% of all RVserotypes use ICAM-1 molecule and minor group approximately 10% of allRV serotypes use low density lipoprotein receptor (N. G. Papadopoulos,S. L. Johnston: Rhinoviruses. Principles and practice of clinicalvirology. 5th edition 2004, 361-377).

Recent work indicates that asthmatic individuals are more susceptible tonaturally occurring rhinovirus (RV) infection than normal individuals inthat lower respiratory tract symptoms and changes in PEF were moresevere and of longer (Corne et al., Lancet (2002) 359, 831-834). So theimportant question is what differences occur in lower airway ofasthmatics in comparison to normal subjects during RV infection and leadto asthma exacerbation.

It was demonstrated that in asthmatics RV induces greater severity oflower respiratory symptoms which is accompanied by higher concentrationsof inflammatory cells: lymphocytes, NK cells, eosinophils and neutophilsin BALRV infection induces inflammatory response (IL-6, IL-8, RANTES,IL-16 and upregulation of ICAM-1) in bronchial epithelium (N. G.Papadopoulos, P. J. Bates, P. G. Bardin et al. J Infect Dis 181 (2000),pp. 1875-1884; S. L. Johnston, A. Papi, P. J. Bates, J. G. Mastronarde,M. M. Monick and G. W. Hunninghake, J Immunol 160 (1998), pp.6172-6181). PBMCs from asthmatics exposed to RV ex vivo demonstrateddecreased levels of type I cytokines and increased levels of type 2cytokines when compared to normals (Papadopoulos et al. Thorax 57(2002)). Moreover, as already noted above, more recently primaryepithelial bronchial cells from asthmatics exposed to RV ex vivo wereobserved to demonstrate decreased levels of IFN-β when compared tonormals (Wark et al. J. Exp. Med. (21 Mar. 2005) 201, 937-947)

As also previously discussed above, Type 1 interferons such as IFN-α,IFN-β and the more recently discovered type III interferons (IFN-λs)play a vital role in innate immune response against viruses. They inducelots of IFN-inducible genes with antiviral properties and as it has beenshown recently induce apoptosis in virally infected cells (Takaoka A,Hayakawa S, Yanai H, et al. Nature 2003; 424(6948):516-523).

As there is no small animal model for rhinovirus infection, it is veryimportant to use proper cell cultures which are being infected byrhinoviruses. It is known that rhinovirus infects and replicates inrespiratory epithelial cells of lower respiratory tract (N. G.Papadopoulos et al J Med Virol 58 (1999), pp. 100-104). As it is notmuch known about the induction of type 1 and type III interferons inepithelial cells, in this study we tried to show how different celltypes such as primary bronchial epithelial cells, BEAS-2B and PBMC (as amodel for macrophages) express and produce various type 1 and type IIIinterferons upon different respiratory virus infection.

Human Bronchial Epithelial Cell Tissue Culture

Human bronchial epithelial cells (HBECs) were purchased from Cambrex,USA. Primary cultures were established by seeding bronchial epithelialcells into hormonally supplemented bronchial epithelial growth medium(BEBM; Cambrex, USA) containing 2 ml BPE, 0.5 ml insulin, HC 0.5 ml,GA-1000 0.5 ml, retinoic acid 0.5 ml, transferrin 0.5 ml,triiodothyronine 0.5 ml, epinephrine 0.5 ml, hEGF 0.5 ml (Cambrex, USA).At passage 1 cells were seeded onto 12 well trays and cultured until 80%confluent (Bucchieri et al., Asthamatic bronchil epithelium is moresusceptible to oxidant-induced apoptoisis. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol.Biol. 27, 179) before exposure to RV-16, RV-1B and influenza virus.

Cell and Viral Culture

The human bronchial epithelial cell line BEAS-2B were cultured inRPMI-1640 supplemented with 10% FCS (Invitrogen). RV serotypes 16 and 1Bwere grown in HeLa cells and prepared as previously described (Papi andJohnston (1999) Rhinovirus infection induces expression of its ownreceptor intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) via increasedNF-kB-mediated transcription J. Biol. Chem. 274, 9707-9720) Viruses weretitrated on HeLa cells to ascertain their TCID₅₀/ml (Johnston and Tyrell(1995) Rhinoviruses, p. 253-263 In Diagnostic procedures for viral,rickettsial and Chlamydial infections, ed Lennette and Schmidt, AmericanPublic health Association, Washington, D.C.). The identities of all RVswere confirmed by titration on HeLa cells and neutralisation usingserotype-specific antibodies. UV inactivation was performed aspreviously described (Johnston et al. (1998) Low grade rhinovirusinfection induces a prolonged release of IL-8 in pulmonary epithelium.J. Immunol. 160, 6172-6181) and filtered virus was produced by passingRV stocks through a 30 KDa membrane (Millipore) at 10 000 g for 5 min.

Infection of Cells with RV

BEAS-2B cells were cultured in 12-well tissue culture plates (NalgeNunc) for 24-hours before being placed into 2% FCS RPMI medium for afurther 24-hours. Cells were infected with RV for 1-hour with shaking atroom temperature, before the virus was removed and replaced with 1 ml of2% FCS RPMI medium. Cells supernatants and RNA lysates were harvested atthe times indicated. Supernatants and lysates were stored at −80° C.until required.

PBMC Separation and Rhinovirus 16 Infection

PBMCs were separated from whole blood using gradient densitycentrifugations (Sigma). 4×10(6) cells/2 ml were exposed to rhinovirus16 for 1 hour. At the end of exposure time cells were washed and mediumwas changed.

RNA Extraction Reverse Transcription and TaqMan® Real-Time PCR

RNA was extracted from cells using the RNeasy method following themanufacturers instructions, including the optional DNaseI digestion ofcontaminating DNA (Qiagen). CDNA was synthesised using Omniscript RT andcomponents as directed by the manufacturer (Qiagen).

Primers were purchased from Invitrogen and probes from Qiagen. TaqMan®analysis of alpha-interpherons, IL-29 and IFNB mRNA was normalised withrespect to 18s rRNA. For detecting of alpha-interferons types 1, 6 and13 IFNα.1 set of primers and probe was used (IFNA.1 forward-5′-CAG AGTCAC CCA TCT CAG CA-3 (SEQ ID NO: 11), IFNA.1 reverse-5′-CAC CAC CAG GACCAT CAG TA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 12) and 5′-FAM-TAMRA labelled probe-5′-ATC TGCAAT ATC TAC GAT GGC CTC gCC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 13)). For detecting ofalpha-interferons types 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 14, 17, 21 IFNα.2 set of primersand probe was used (IFNα.2 forward-5′-CTG GCA CAA ATG GGA AGA AT-3′ (SEQID NO: 14), IFNA.2 reverse-5′-CTT GAG CCT TCT GGA ACT GG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:15) and 5′-FAM-TAMRA labelled probe-5′-TTT CTC CTG CCT GAA GGA CAG ACATga-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 16). For IL-29 detection we used forward primer-5′GGACGC CTT GGA AGA GTC ACT′3 (SEQ ID NO: 17), reverse-5′-AGA AGC CTC AGGTCC CAA TTC′-3 (SEQ ID NO: 18) and 5′-FAM-TAMRA labelled probe-5′-AGTTGC AGC TCT CCT GTC TTC CCC G-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 19). For interferon-betadetection we used forward primer 5′-CGC CGC ATT GAC CAT CTA-3′ (SEQ IDNO: 20), reverse-5′-GAC ATT AGC CAG GAG GTT CTC A-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 21) and5′-FAM-TAMRA labelled probe-5′-TCA GAC AAG ATT CAT CTA GCA CTG GCTGGA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 22). For 18 s, each reaction contained 18STM.1 (CGCCGC TAG AGG TGA AAT TCT) (SEQ ID NO: 23), 18STM.2 (CAT TCT TGG CAA ATGCTT TCG) (SEQ ID NO: 24), 5′-FAM-TAMRA labelled probe (5′-ACC GGC GCAAGA CGG ACC AGA) (SEQ ID NO: 25) and 2 μl cDNA diluted 1/100 in 1×Quantitect Probe PCR Master Mix (Qiagen). The reactions were analysedusing an ABI7000 Automated TaqMan (Applied Biosystems). Theamplification cycle consisted of 50° C. for 2 minutes, 94° C. for 10minutes and 40 cycles of 94° C. for 15 seconds, 60° C. for 15 seconds.

Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay to Evaluate IFN-A, IL-29 and IFNBRelease

Interferon-alpha, interferon-beta and IL-29 proteins were quantified byELISA in supernatants from untreated and infected cell culturescollected and stored at −80° C. using commercially available pairedantibodies and standards, following the manufacturers instructions. HighSensitivity Interferon-alpha Human Biotrak ELISA System by AmershamBiosciences for interferon-alpha. Human Interferon-beta ELISA kit waspurchased from Fujirebio Inc. All the measurements were done accordingto manufactures' instructions. The detection limits for described assaysare 0.63 pg/ml for interferon-alpha, 2.5 UI/ml for interferon-beta and0.01 for IL-29.

Quantitative ELISA for IFNλs

ELISA 96 well plates (Nunc Maxisorp) were coated with detecting antibody(100 μl per well of Monoclonal Anti-human IL-29/IFN-λ1 Antibody dilutedin PBS from R&D system catalogue number MAB15981 at concentration of 1μg/ml) and left at room temperature overnight. The next morning plateswere washed twice in PBS with 0.1% of Tween 20 and than blocked at roomtemperature with 220 μl per well of a solution of 2% BSA. After 2 hoursplates were washed twice and 100 μl of undiluted samples and 100 μl ofstandard samples were added in the wells. Samples and standard were bothtested in duplicate. Standard was set up in diluent buffer (PBS with 1%BSA and 0.1% Tween 20) using Recombinant Human IL-29/IFN-λ1, from R&Dsystem starting from 3 ng/ml down to approximately 10 pg/ml. 100 mcl ofdiluent buffer were added in same wells as negative controls. After 2 hplates were washed twice and 100 μl of secondary antibody were added(Anti-human IL-29/IFN-λ1 Antibody from R&D system catalogue numberAF1598 reconstituted in PBS and diluted in diluent buffer at aconcentration of 1 μg/ml). According to manufacture instruction theseantibodies have respectively 15% for the monoclonal and 25% for thepolyclonal cross-reactivity with IFN-λ2 and IFN-λ3. After 2 hours plateswere washed and 100 μl of biotinylated antibody from Autogen Bioclearcatalogue number ABN022B diluted 1 in 5000 in diluent buffer were addedto each well for 2 hours. Plates were washed twice and 100 μl ofstreptaviden-HRP conjugated diluted 1 in 5000 in diluent buffer wereadded in each well for 15 minutes. Plates were washed three times and100 μl of TMB substrate solution were added and the reaction was stoppedwith 50 μl of 1.8 M oh H₂SO₄ solution.

Statistical Analysis

Data are presented as mean±SEM. All data were analysed using one-wayANOVA and Bonferroni's multiple comparison post hoc test. Data wereaccepted as significantly different when p<0.05.

Results

Time course of type 1 and type III interferons mRNA expression inBEAS-2B cells

The expression of type 1 and type III interferons was studied duringtime course infection of BEAS-2B cells with RV 16 by Taqman PCR. Fordetection of various alpha-interferon subtypes, two pairs of Taqman PCRprimers and probes were selected. First primer and probe set detectssubtypes 1, 6 and 13, second primer and probe set detects subtypes 4, 5,8, 10, 14, 17, 21. Primer and probe sets for detection of IL-29 (IFN-λ)and interferon-beta were also designed. FIG. 32 a demonstrates theexpression of type1 interferons detected by IFNα.1, but no significantinduction of these type 1 interferons mRNA by rhinovirus 16. With IFNα.2statistically significant increase of type 1 interferon expressionoccurred in comparison to medium by 8 hours compared to 0-hour timepoint. At 0, 4 and 24 time points no induction was found. IL-29 mRNAexpression was also statistically significant increased at 8 hour timepoint and we detected even higher induction by 24 hours (p<0.05) FIG. 32b. Interferon-beta mRNA expression was induced by rhinovirus 16 justonce by 24 hours (p<0.05). 1000 fold induction was detected over medium.All the results were statistically significant (p<0.05) from O-hour timepoint.

Detection of Interferon-alpha, Interferon-Beta and IL-29 Proteins in RVInfected BEAS-2B Cells

No significant induction of interferon-alpha protein during rhinovirus16 infection was detected in BEAS-2B cells. Only traces of IFNA proteinfrom approximately 0.3 to 0.5 pg/lm were detected by ELISA with range ofdetection from 0.63 to 20 pg/ml. The induction of IFNβ proteinproduction was observed by 24 hours (FIG. 32 c). The level of IFNβprotein production was statistically significantly (p<0.05) increased inrhinovirus 16 infected BEAS-2B cells in comparison to non infectedcells. BEAS-2B cells infected with rhinovirus 16 produced high level ofIL-29 protein by 24 hours (p<0.05) (FIG. 32 d).

Time Course of Type 1 and Type III Interferon mRNA Expression in PrimaryBronchial Epithelial Cell During Rhinovirus 16 Infection

IFNα, IFNβ and IL-29 mRNA expression was assessed during a rhinovirus 16time course at 0, 4, 8 and 24-hour time points. Alpha-interferonsdetected by IFNA.1 primer pair were expressed at all time points butnever upregulated by rhinovirus 16. Using IFNA.2 we observed noinduction by 4 hours and 10000-fold statistically significant inductionover medium by 8 hours (p<0.05) which was still elevated by 24 hours(FIG. 33 a). With IL-29 mRNA we observed slight induction by 4 and 8hours and peak—1000000 fold induction over medium by 24 hours (p<0.05).Interferon-beta demonstrated no induction by 0, 4 and 8 hour timepoints, but was induced by rhinovirus 16 at 8 and 24 hours—100000 foldinduction over medium (FIG. 33 b).

Time Course of Type 1 and Type III Interferon mRNA Expression in HumanBronchial Epithelial Cell During Rhinovirus 1B Infection

Alpha-interferons, interferon-beta and IL-29 mRNA expression was alsoobserved during a rhinovirus 1B time course at 0, 4, 8 and 24-hour timepoints. Alpha-interferons detected by IFNα.1 primer pair were alsoexpressed at all time points but not induced by rhinovirus 16. But mRNAof alpha-interferons detected by second primer pair IFNα.2 were notinduced by rhinovirus 1B by 0 an 4 hours and peaked by 8 and 24hours—10000 fold induction over medium. These results reached thestatistical significance (p<0.05) (FIG. 34 a). IL-29 mRNA was notinduced by rhinovirus 1B by 0 and 4 hours. But some induction wasobserved by 8 hours (1000 fold induction over medium) and very highlevel of induction was detected by 24 hours—1000000 fold induction overmedium (p<0.05). No induction of interferon-beta was observed by 4hours, 100 fold induction over medium by 8 hours (not statisticallysignificant) and peak at 24 hours—100000 fold induction over medium(p<0.05) (FIG. 34 b).

Time Course of Type 1 and Type III Interferon mRNA Expression in HumanBronchial Epithelial Cell During Influenza Infection

IFNα, IFNβ and IL-29 mRNA expression was also observed during influenzavirus time course at 0, 4, 8 and 24-hour time points. Alpha-interferonsdetected by IFNA.1 primer pair were again expressed at all time pointsbut not induced by influenza virus. Alpha-interferons detected by IFNα2were not upregulated by 0 and 4 hours. Slight 10 fold induction wasobserved by 8 hours and 100 fold induction by 24 hours (FIG. 35 a).IL-29 was induced by influenza virus at 4 and 8 hour time point (1000fold induction over medium) and peaked at 24 hours (1000000 foldinduction over medium). IFNβ m RNA induction was not seen at 4 and 8hours. But 100-fold induction was detected at 8 hours and peaked at 24hours-10⁵ fold induction over medium (FIG. 35 b).

Detection of Interferon-Alpha Interferon-Beta and IL-29 Protein in HBECCells.

No production of Interferon-alpha, interferon-beta and IL-29 has beendetected in HBEC cells infected with rhinovirus 16, 1B and influenzavirus.

Discussion

As already described the expression of alpha-interferon types detectedby first primer pair (types 1, 6 and 13) was detected in both epithelialcell cultures (BEAS-2B and HBEC) with every respiratory virus used. Butinterestingly no up regulation of these interferon types was seen. Soprobably these alpha-interferon types are constitutively expressed inepithelial cell cultures but not induced by respiratory viruses whichwere used. And according to the ELISA data none of thesealpha-interferon types are produced by epithelial cell lines.

The level of detection of alpha-interferons with second primer (types 2,4, 5, 8, 10, 14, 17, 21) pair is quite different. It is induced inepithelial cell lines most often at 8 hours after the infection. Thisprimer pair detects interferon-alpha 4 which can be the reason for thisinduction. But the story with protein is the same—it is not produced inepithelial cells.

It is also interesting that in HBEC the level of induction ofalpha-interferons detected by second primer pair is lower when the cellsare infected with influenza virus than they are infected by rhinoviruses16 and 1B. Which indicates that influenza virus downregulates theinduction of alpha interferons in epithelial cells.

So alpha-interferons are expressed, induced but not produced inepithelial cells after respiratory virus infection.

In the study interferon-beta was induced later than IFNα.2alpha-interferons by respiratory viruses used.

Interestingly interferon-beta is differently produced in variousepithelial cell lines. In BEAS-2B cells it is produced by 24 hours overrhinovirus infection thus in HBEC it is not produced after infectionwith neither rhinovirus16 nor with rhinovirus 1B and influenza virus.

IL-29 mRNA is induced in both epithelial cell lines by 8 and 24 hours.

In epithelial cells mRNA of IFNα.1 types of alpha-interferons isexpressed and not induced and neither produced. mRNA of IFNα2 (whichcontain interferon alpha-4) types of interferon-alpha is induced byvarious rhinoviruses in studied epithelial cell line but nointerferon-alpha is produced by epithelial cell lines.

So in epithelial cells differences in kinetics of type 1 and type IIIinterferons can be seen. In BEAS-2B cells over the rhinovirus 16infection alpha-interferons are expressed by 8 hours and then go down.Whilst interferon-beta peaks only at 24 hours. IL-29 mRNA in BEAS-2Bcells starts rising at 8-hour time point and goes even higher at 24 hourtime-point.

In HBEC infected with rhinovirus 16 alpha-interferons are up regulatedby 8 hours and stay the same by 24 hour time point. Interferon-beta isup regulated by 24 hours as well as IL-29.

HBEC infected with rhinovirus 1B has the same kinetics of type 1 andtype III interferon expression. They are up regulated at the same timepoints, which demonstrates that the kinetics of rhinovirus up regulationdoesn't depend on rhinovirus type and probably indicates that they havethe same induction pathway.

Although the level of induction of type 1 and type III interferons byinfluenza virus is lower in comparison to rhinovirus infection it hasnearly the same kinetics: alpha-interferons also go up by 8 and 24hours, beta-interferon and IL-29 peak at 24 hours. This also notvariable from data obtained with rhinovirus infection.

UV-Data

It has been demonstrated that alpha-interferons are expressed inepithelial cells, Moreover some of them are induced by variousrespiratory viruses. But in both studied respiratory epithelial cellcultures they are not produced. Alpha-interferons are vital antiviralfactors, as they induce hundreds of interferon inducible genes withantiviral properties. Some epithelial cell lines are able to producealpha-interferons under certain conditions and stimuli, but it seemsthat either respiratory epithelium is not able to producealpha-interferons, or respiratory viruses are not potent inducers ofalpha-interferon production in respiratory epithelium. And it seems thatthe most important producers of alpha-interferons during respiratoryvirus infections are plasmacytoid dendritic cells (Cella, M., D.Jarrossay, F. Facchetti, O. Alebardi, H. Nakajima, A. Lanzavecchia, andM. Colonna. 1999. Plasmacytoid monocytes migrate to inflamed lymph nodesand produce large amounts of type I interferon. Nat. Med. 5:919-923.)and macrophages.

Interestingly beta-interferons are induced and produced in someepithelial cell lines, such as BEAS-2B.

The same is observed with IL-29, but induction of this type IIIinterferon is earlier, to a greater level and more sustained thaninduction of the type I interferons.

EXAMPLE 6 Further Experimental Procedures

We provide below further experimental procedures used to derive the datapresented herein.

Outline of Experimental Design and Techniques

RV16 experimental infections were induced in RV16 seronegative asthmaticand normal subjects. Baseline, acute infection and convalescent (6 week)blood, nasal, sputum and bronchoalveolar sampling were carried out toinvestigate baseline status, the acute phase of illness, and the degreeof persistence. 17 normal, non-atopic and 11 atopic, mild asthmaticadults were recruited. Clinical and atopic status were defined byquestionnaire, skin prick testing, serum IgE and lung function testingincluding histamine PC20. The asthmatic group were required to have ahistamine PC₂₀<8 mg/ml, the normal group>8 mg/ml. Individuals takinginhaled/oral steroids were excluded. Subjects were free of common coldsymptoms for 6 weeks before commencing the study. Samples were takenaccording to established protocols developed in previous studies. Theseincluded blood, nasal lavage (NL), and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL).Baseline samples were taken 2 wks prior to infection. Followinginoculation on day 0, volunteers attended on days 3, 4 and 7 (at theheight of cold symptoms) for further samples and lung function tests.Volunteers also attended daily from day 0 (prior to inoculation) to day8 and on day 11 for NL to determine viral load. A third set of samplesand lung function tests were performed at 6 weeks.

Experimental Infection with RV16

Protocols for experimental virus infection have been described inprevious studies (Bardin et al., (1996) European Respiratory Journal 9,2250-2255; Fraenkel et al., (1995) Am. J. Respir. & Crit. Care Med. 15,879-886; Bardin et al., (1994) Clin Exp. Allergy 24, 457-464). Detailsregarding preparation and safety testing of the RV16 inoculum have beenpublished (Bardin et al (1996) supra). Experimental infection wasinduced using 10000 TCID₅₀ RV16 on day 0 by nasal spray, with aDeVillbiss 286 atomizer. 2 aliquots of 500 μl (2500 TCID₅₀) were appliedto each nostril. Inoculation was carried out in a specified clinicalroom at the end of the clinic day. Subjects avoided individuals withrespiratory infection to minimise risk of a non-RV16 infection duringthe study. Infection was confirmed by culture of NL in HeLa cells forRV, or by positive serology. RNA was extracted from NL and BAL cellpellets and analysed by PCR for RV. Taqman PCR was used to quantifyviral RNA. Co-infection with additional respiratory viruses includingalternative RV serotypes was excluded by PCR for other viruses and byneutralisation of cultured rhinoviruses with RV16 specific antisera.

Criteria for Virological Confirmation of RV16 Infection

Successful experimental RV16 infection was confirmed by at least one ofthe following virological tests: Positive standard or Taqman RT-PCR forRV from upper (nasal lavage) and/or lower (induced sputum,bronchoalveolar lavage) airway samples; a rise in serum neutralisingantibodies to RV16 6 weeks after inoculation of at least 4-fold (in thecase of subjects in this study who were seronegative at baseline a titreof at least 1:4 was considered satisfactory); positive culture of RVfrom nasal lavage in HeLa cells with, after repeat passaging of virus toobtain a satisfactory concentration as determined by titration assay,clear RV cytopathic effect on HeLa cell monolayers with neutralisationby guinea pig specific RV16 antiserum. Standard picornavirus RT-PCR wasperformed on nasal lavage collected on the day with the peak TaqmanRT-PCR viral load. Restriction enzyme analysis was then carried out toconfirm the identity of positive picornavirus as RV and not enterovirus.Similarly, viral culture was performed using nasal lavage from the peakday on the basis of the Taqman results.

Collection of Clinical Data

Subjects recorded cold and chest symptom scores daily during an initialscreening phase and from baseline, starting 2 weeks prior to thebaseline bronchoscopy through to convalescence, finishing 2 weeks afterthe convalescent bronchoscopy performed 6 weeks after the experimentalRV16 infection. In addition to symptom scores the subjects noted thetiming and amount of medication such as inhaled bronchodilatorsrequired. Lung function was assessed by 2 methods. Firstly, subjectsperformed home spirometry using a portable handheld spirometer twicedaily, in the morning immediately after waking and last thing at night.Secondly, Histamine PC20 tests were used to assess bronchialhyperreactivity on screening, at baseline, at day 6 post inoculation andin convalescence.

Diary Cards for Symptom Scores/Medication Usage/Spirometry Recording

Symptom assessment was by questionnaire for 2 weeks prior to, during andfor 6 weeks after infection. The cold score was based on that of earliercommon cold studies (Jackson et al (1958) Arch. Int. Med. 101:267-278).Symptoms (sneezing, headache, malaise, chilliness, nasal discharge,nasal obstruction, sore throat, cough, fever) were graded 0-3. Aclinical cold was defined by a minimum cumulative score of 14 over 6days (>20=severe cold) plus a subjective impression of cold orrhinorrhoea. Chest score symptoms included: cough on waking; wheeze onwaking; daytime cough; daytime wheeze; daytime shortness of breath;nocturnal cough, wheeze or shortness of breath.

Analysis of Clinical Symptom Scores

To facilitate analysis of the clinical data the experimental infectionprotocol was divided up into separate stages. In addition to calculationof daily scores for individual symptom and total cold or chest scores, 2week scores were calculated to allow for statistical analysis of theeffects of RV infection on symptoms. It was decided to examine 2 weekstages because following RV inoculation excess symptoms lasted for up to2 weeks. The pre-baseline or screening stage was the 2 weeks up to thebeginning of the baseline stage, the pre-convalescent stage was the 2weeks immediately before the convalescent bronchoscopy. Neither of these2 stages contained bronchoscopy. The baseline, acute infection and theconvalescent stages all contain bronchoscopy on the 4^(th) day of that 2week block. To examine the effects of the RV16 infection on symptomsdaily and 2 week excess symptom scores were calculated by subtractingthe scores obtained during the baseline stage from the correspondingdays of the acute infection stage to correct for the effects ofundergoing bronchoscopy, which itself may result in cold and chestsymptoms and in short lived changes in lung function.

Lung Function Testing

Lung function testing was performed according to BTS/ARTP guidelines(Anonymous. (1994). Guidelines for the measurement of respiratoryfunction. Recommendations of the British Thoracic Society and theAssociation of Respiratory Technicians and Physiologists. RespiratoryMedicine 88:165-194). Subjects used a portable spirometer at home, themicroDL (MicroMedical) morning and evening. Data was analysed usingSpida software. In the lung function laboratory, and for bronchodilatorreversibility, sputum induction and histamine challenge subjects used aVitalograph Dry Wedge Bellows Spirometer. To facilitate comparison ofchanges in the 2 groups during the experimental infections firstly the %change in FEV1 from the mean obtained during the screening stage wascalculated for each subject on the days following RV16 inoculation andsecondly this was corrected for changes seen following bronchoscopy inthe corresponding baseline days.

Histamine Challenge

Histamine challenge was performed according to ERS guidelines (Sterk etal (1993) Airway responsiveness. Standardized challenge testing withpharmacological, physical and sensitizing stimuli in adults. ReportWorking Party Standardization of Lung Function Tests, European Communityfor Steel and Coal. Official Statement of the European RespiratorySociety. [Review] European Respiratory Journal—Supplement 16:53-83)using the 2 minute tidal breathing method. Bronchial hyperreactivity wasassessed at baseline, day 6 post-infection and at 6 weeks.

Skin Prick Testing

Atopy was determined by skin prick testing to common aeroallergens:grass pollen; house dust mite; cat dander; dog hair; Aspergillusfumigatus; Cladosporium herbarum; Alternaria alternata; silver birch; 3trees; nettle pollen. Positive histamine/negative diluent controls wereincluded. 1 positive reaction (wheal 3 mm greater than negative control)was considered diagnostic of atopy.

Nasal Lavage

NL was performed for: standard and Taqman RT-PCR for RV viral load; toconfirm infection by effects on HeLa cell culture. 2.5 ml sterile normalsaline was instilled into each nostril using a soft plastic pippete.Lavage was collected into a sterile petri dish, homogenised thenaliquotted for storage at −80 C.

Peripheral Blood Analyses

50 ml blood was collected in heparinised tubes, diluted 1:1 with PBSthen layered over lymphoprep. After centrifugation 2500 rpm 30 minsmononuclear cells were transferred to a single polypropylene tube andwashed in RPMI-1640 10% FCS. The cell suspension was diluted 1:10 in0.1% trypan blue for counting and assessment of viability byhaemocytometer. Cells were resuspended in appropriate culture medium atthe required cell density for subsequent experiments.

Serum Separation

10 ml blood was collected in a plain vacutainer tube, placed at 37 C 4 hto clot before centrifuging 2000 rpm 15 mins. Serum was aliquotted forstorage at −80 C for subsequent analysis for the presence of RV16neutralising antibody.

Bronchoscopy

Bronchoscopies were performed according to BTS guidelines (BritishThoracic society Bronchoscopy Guidelines Committee. 2001. BritishThoracic Society guidelines on diagnostic flexible bromnchoscopy. Thorax56:i1-i21) in the endoscopy unit at St Marys Hospital. Subjects weremonitored by a separate physician or nurse. FEV1 was recorded prior toand after the bronchoscopy. A Keymed P100 bronchoscope was used withfenestrated forceps (Keymed FB-19C-1) and 3 mm sheathed brushes (KeymedBC-16C). BAL was performed by instillation of sterile normal saline(room temperature) into the right middle lobe bronchus in 8×30 mlaliquots with a 10 s dwell time, aiming for 80% recovery. At baselineand 6 weeks BAL was obtained from the medial segment right middle lobe,at day 4 from the lateral segment to minimise effects of the previousBAL. BAL was collected in a single plastic chamber and transferredimmediately to polypropylene tubes on ice for transport to thelaboratory.

RV16 Serology

RV16 serology was performed at screening, baseline, d0 and 6 wks postinfection by microneutralisation test for neutralising antibody to RV16utilising HeLa cell monolayers in 96 well plates. Doubling dilutions ofsera (50 μl) were made from 1:2 to 1:128. 50 μl diluted stock viruscontaining 100TCID₅₀ was added and the plate shaken at room temperaturefor 1 h. 100 μl freshly stripped HeLa cells 2×10⁵ cells/ml were addedand plates incubated at 37 C. Serum (cells+serum at 1:2 dilution), cell(cells, no serum, no virus) and virus (cells, no serum, stock virus)controls were included. Cytopathic effect (CPE) was read after 2-3 days.Antibody titre was defined by the greatest serum dilution completelyneutralising viral CPE. Seroconversion was defined in seronegativesubjects as a convalescent titre of RV16 neutralising antibodies of 1:4or greater.

Virus Culture from Clinical Samples

The presence of RV in nasal lavage was determined by culture. This wasinitially performed at 37° C. and if negative repeated at 33° C. Viruswas cultured by adding sample to a small volume of medium containingantibiotics and covering semi-confluent HeLa cells in a T25 flask,shaking at room temperature for 1 h, then adding additional medium andobserving for CPE. If absent cells were lysed by 2 freeze/thaw cycles at5 days and the clarified supernatant was added to fresh HeLa cells. Ifafter 5 passages no CPE was observed virus was considered absent.Confirmation of cultured virus as RV16 involved a microneutralisationassay with RV16-specific sera (ATCC-titre 1:600). RV titre in culturesupernatant was estimated by titration assay. Then in a 96-well plate 50μl of diluted supernatant containing 100TCID₅₀ of virus was added to anequal volume of medium containing 2-fold serial dilutions of thespecific RV16 antisera from 1:20 to 1:1280. The assay included positive(stock RV16) and cell (no virus) controls.

RNA Extraction from Stored Clinical Samples and Reverse TranscriptionUsing Random Hexamer Primers

RNA was extracted from samples using the QIAamp viral RNA mini kit(Qiagen) and reverse transcription performed using the omniscript RT kit(Qiagen) and random hexamer primers as per the manufacturer'sinstructions.

Standard PCR for Picornaviruses

RV RT-PCR was performed from cDNA produced by RT using random hexamerprimers. PCR was performed using the Perkin Elmer 9600 GeneAmp PCRsystem using the published method (Johnston et al (1993) Journal ofClinical Microbiology 31:111-117) utilising the OL26/OL27 primer pair.The 380 bp picornavirus specific amplicon generated was visualised byethidium bromide staining after electrophoresis on a 2% agarose gel andphotographed by polaroid camera. RV amplicons were distinguished fromthose of enteroviruses by restriction digestion using Bgl I(Papadopoulos et al (1999) Journal of Virological Methods 80:179-185).

PCR for Additional Respiratory Viruses

The presence of respiratory viruses other than RV was excluded by PCRfor Mycoplasma and Chlamydia pneumoniae, adenoviruses, respiratorysyncytial virus, influenza AH1/AH3/B, parainfluenza 1-3, coronaviruses229E and OC43. cDNA for these PCRs was produced by random hexamer RT.The protocols for these additional PCRs are previously published(Seemungal et al. (2001) American Journal of Respiratory & Critical CareMedicine 164:1618-1623)

Taqman RT-PCR for Picornavirus

Taqman RT-PCR was used to detect picornavirus in NL and BAL storedunprocessed after sampling at −80 C. RNA was extracted from samplesusing the QIAamp viral RNA mini kit (Qiagen) and reverse transcriptionperformed using the omniscript RT kit (Qiagen) and random hexamerprimers as per the manufacturer's instructions. PCR was performed usingthe PB Biosystems ABI Prism 7700 sequence detection system withAmplitaqGold DNA polymerase, a picornavirus specific primer pair(forward oligo 5′-GTG AAG AGC CSC RTG TGC T-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 26), reverseoligo 5′-GCT SCA GGG TTA AGG TTA GCC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 27)) and a FAM/TAMRAlabelled picornavirus probe (FAM-TGA GTC CTC CGG CCC CTG AAT G-TAMRA)(SEQ ID NO: 28).

A master mix was made up consisting of Qiagen quantitect probe mix,forward primer (50 nM) reverse primer (300 nM), probe (100 nM) and Rnaseinhibitor. 23 μl of PCR master mix was added to 2 μl cDNA in each tubeof the 96 well Taqman plate. Thermal cycling and detection offluorescent PCR product was carried out using the PE Biosystems ABIPrism 7700 sequence detection system. The thermal cycle conditions usedwere: 50° C. 2 min; 95° C. 10 min; then 45 cycles×95° C. 15 s/55° C. 20s/72° C. 40 s. The Taqman RT-PCR methodology had been optimised bycollaborators at Viropharma (Pevear et al (1999) Antimicrobial Agents &Chemotherapy 43:2109-2115). Fluorescence data was collected for eachcycle and the cycle number (Ct) at which fluorescence rose abovethreshold was determined. Negative extraction (water), negative PCR(template only) and positive extraction (RV16 stock) were included. Astandard curve was produced by including in the Taqman plate tubescontaining 2 μl of RV plasmid serially diluted 10 fold from 10⁸ to 10⁰copies/2 μl. After PCR each plasmid generates 1 copy dsDNA. Results wereexpressed for each sample in terms of copies/ml for NL and BAL byreference to the standard curve and taking into account both dilutionfactors inherent in processing to RNA and cDNA and the “doublefluorescence” produced by each copy of dsDNA plasmid.

Statistical Analysis

Symptom scores, lung function, PC₂₀ values, virus load, cytokine andchemokine concentration and leukocyte numbers were compared withinsubjects to determine differences induced between baseline and the acutecold, and persistence of changes into convalescence. Intra-subjectdifferences were analyzed using Wilcoxon's test. Differences betweennormal and asthmatic groups were analyzed using Mann Whitney's test ateach phase of the study. Correlations between clinical illness severity,virus load, leukocyte counts and cytokine/chemokine concentrations wereexamined using Spearman's rank correlation to investigate possiblecausal relationships for these factors regulating the altered responsein asthma.

BAL Ex Vivo Cultures

BAL cells from the bronchoscopy performed at baseline prior toexperimental infection have been cultured for 48 h ex vivo inpolypropylene tubes prior to harvesting of supernatant for cytokineproduction and cells for RNA, culture conditions including thefollowing: medium only, medium +RV16 SMOI, medium +RV16 filter control,medium +LPS 0.1 μg/ml, medium +PHA 1 μg/ml, medium +allergen 5000 ISQ.On harvesting cells were vortexed briefly before centrifugation 1500 rpm10 mins. Supernatent was aliquotted and stored at −80 C for subsequentanalysis by ELISA. 1 ml of trizol was added to lyse the cells beforestorage at −80 C for subsequent analysis by RT-PCR.

EXAMPLE 7 Correlation of IFNλ Protein Levels with Clinical Indicators ofInfection

The correlation between IFNλ protein levels and clinical indicators ofrespiratory F infection was further investigated. The data is presentedin FIG. 31. The methods used are outlined above in Example 6.

FIG. 31 shows IFNλ levels in bronchoalveolar cell supernatants,stimulated ex vivo with rhinovirus.

FIG. 31 (a) shows the quantity of IFNλ protein in the supernatant of exvivo RV-stimulated bronchoalveolar cells from normal and asthmaticsubjects. It is clear from this data that cells isolated from asthmaticsubjects produce much lower amounts of IFNλ protein than cells isolatedfrom non-asthmatics subjects. Hence, bronchoalveolar cells fromasthmatic subjects do not produce as much IFNλ protein when infectedwith RV than bronchoalveolar cells from normal subjects.

FIG. 31 (b) illustrates the relationship between IFN□ protein levels inpatients infected with RV and the “cold score” of the patients wheninfected in vivo with rhinovius 2 weeks later. “Cold score” is aclinical measure of the severity of the respiratory viral infection, asdiscussed above in Example 7. It is clear that patients that have lowerIFNλ protein levels have a higher “cold score” than patients with moreIFNλ protein. Accordingly, the data demonstrates the correlation betweenIFNλ protein levels and the severity of clinical indicators ofrespiratory viral infection. Hence IFNλ protein may be of use in thetreatment of respiratory disorders.

FIG. 31 (c) shows the relationship between lung capacity (as measuredusing FEV1 values) in patients infected with RV and IFN protein levels.It is clear that there is a correlation between the reduction in FEV1and the level of IFNλ protein in the patients. Thus patients with lowerIFNλ production at baseline suffer more severe airway obstruction wheninfected with rhinovirus 2 weeks later, hence IFNλ may be used inreducing severity of asthma excerbations.

FIG. 31 (d) shows the amount of RV16 RNA in BAL cells (therefore lowerairway virus load) taken during an in vivo infection with rhinoviruscorrelated with IFNλ protein production in BAL cells taken at baseline 2weeks prior to the in vivo infection at baseline. Again, there is acorrelation between the amount of RV16 RNA levels and IFNλ proteinlevels: the more IFNλ protein, the less RV16 RNA is present. Thus IFNλmay be used to diminish virus load in the lower airway therebypreventing/ameliorating virus induced asthma exacerbations.

The data presented in FIG. 31 provides correlations between lambdaproduction and virus load, lung function and other clinical indicatorsof outcome. This data clearly shows the important biological role forIFNλs in protecting against viral induced exacerbations.

1. A method of treating in an individual a rhinovirus-inducedexacerbation of a respiratory disease selected from asthma and COPD,comprising administering interferon-β (IFN-β) to the lower respiratorytract, wherein the administration results in suppression of rhinovirusreplication in the individual.
 2. A method according to claim 1, whereinsaid respiratory disease is asthma.
 3. A method according to claim 2wherein said IFN-β is administered simultaneously, separately orsequentially with an inhaled corticosteroid.
 4. The method according toclaim 1, wherein the IFN-β comprises the sequence of: (a) human IFNβ-1a(SEQ ID NO: 2); or (b) human IFNβ-1b (SEQ ID NO: 4).
 5. A methodaccording to claim 1, wherein the IFN-β is administered to lung airwaysby means of an aerosol nebuliser.